Pub Date : 2021-12-20DOI: 10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0121.pub2
Patricia A. Duff
近年,河川生態系の構造及び機能を評価する方法に関 する研究が,海外では盛んに行われており,特に河川環 境の情報を数値化する試みが行われている.これらの試 みは,生物的側面の評価と物理構造面の評価2つのアプ ローチに大きく分けられる.生物的側面から河川環境を 評価するシステムとしては,HABSCORE(アメリカ合衆 国)(Barbour et al. 1999),AUSRIVAS(オーストラリア) (Simpson & Norris 2000),RIVPACS(イギリス)(Wright et al. 1984; Moss et al. 1987)などがある.一方で,河川 環境を物理的側面から評価するシステムとしては,Habitat Predicting Model(アメリカ合衆国)(Davies et al. 2000),River Habitat Survey(イギリス)(Raven et al. 1997), SEQ-MP(フランス)(Agence de l’Eau Rhin-Meuse 1996) がある. 我が国における河川環境に関する全国的な調査は,国 土交通省による河川水辺の国勢調査と環境省による自然 環境保全基礎調査がある.この2つの調査では,水生動 植物と陸上動植物に関する詳細なデータが採取されてい る.しかしながら,生物の生息場所(ハビタット)の評 価に関する手法は,未だ体系化されていない. そこで本論ではイギリスで1997年に開発され,2003 年に改訂された River Habitat Survey(RHS)とそのスコ アリングシステムである Habitat Quality Assessment (HQA)を用い,埼玉県,神流川流域の下久保ダム下流 区間の河川環境を評価することを試みた.下久保ダム直 下から下流へ約2.0kmまでの区間には,国指定名勝・ 天然記念物に指定されている三波石峡がある.RHS・HQA の河川環境評価システムが,天然記念物の環境要素を抽 出できるかを検討した. RHSは,河川環境の特徴を評価するシステムであり, 河川環境情報を数値化する試みとしては,実施事例が多 く比較的容易に情報を収集することができる.また, HQAは生物が生息する環境の多様性を数値化すること により評価する方法である.国内河川への適用事例(大 石ほか2006)もあり,調査が比較的短時間・低コストで あるといった観点からも,RHS・HQAの評価システムを 用いた.
近年来，有关评价河川生态系统的构造及功能的方法的研究在国外很盛行，特别是尝试将河川环境的信息数值化。实际分为生物方面的评价和物理结构方面的评价两大类。从生物方面评价河流环境的系统有HABSCORE(美国合众国)(Barbour et al. 1999)、AUSRIVAS(澳大利亚)(Simpson &Norris 2000)，RIVPACS(英国)(Wright et al. 1984;Moss et al. 1987)等。另一方面，作为从物理方面评价河川环境的系统，Habitat Predicting Model(美国)(Davies et al。2000)，River Habitat Survey(英国)(Raven et al. 1997)，有SEQ-MP(法国)(Agence de l’Eau rhinmeuse 1996)。在日本，关于河川环境的全国性调查有国土交通省的河川水边的人口普查和环境省的自然环境保全基础调查。这两个调查分别是:虽然采集了植物和陆地动植物的详细数据，但评估生物栖息场所(habitat)的方法尚未形成体系。因此，本文将介绍英国1997年开发、2003年修订的River Habitat Survey(RHS)及其评分系统Habitat Quality。尝试使用Assessment (HQA)对埼玉县神流川流域下久保水库下游区间的河川环境进行评价。从下久保大坝下方到下游约2.0km的区间，有被指定为国家名胜、天然纪念物的三波石峡。RHS、HQA的河川环境评价系统对是否可以提取天然纪念物的环境要素进行了研究。RHS是评价河流环境特征的系统，作为将河流环境信息数据化的尝试，由于实施案例较多，可以比较容易地收集信息。HQA是通过数值化来评价生物生存环境的多样性的方法。也有适用于国内河流的案例(大石头等2006)，从调查时间较短、成本较低的角度考虑，采用了RHS、HQA评价系统。
{"title":"Case Study","authors":"Patricia A. Duff","doi":"10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0121.pub2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0121.pub2","url":null,"abstract":"近年,河川生態系の構造及び機能を評価する方法に関 する研究が,海外では盛んに行われており,特に河川環 境の情報を数値化する試みが行われている.これらの試 みは,生物的側面の評価と物理構造面の評価2つのアプ ローチに大きく分けられる.生物的側面から河川環境を 評価するシステムとしては,HABSCORE(アメリカ合衆 国)(Barbour et al. 1999),AUSRIVAS(オーストラリア) (Simpson & Norris 2000),RIVPACS(イギリス)(Wright et al. 1984; Moss et al. 1987)などがある.一方で,河川 環境を物理的側面から評価するシステムとしては,Habitat Predicting Model(アメリカ合衆国)(Davies et al. 2000),River Habitat Survey(イギリス)(Raven et al. 1997), SEQ-MP(フランス)(Agence de l’Eau Rhin-Meuse 1996) がある. 我が国における河川環境に関する全国的な調査は,国 土交通省による河川水辺の国勢調査と環境省による自然 環境保全基礎調査がある.この2つの調査では,水生動 植物と陸上動植物に関する詳細なデータが採取されてい る.しかしながら,生物の生息場所(ハビタット)の評 価に関する手法は,未だ体系化されていない. そこで本論ではイギリスで1997年に開発され,2003 年に改訂された River Habitat Survey(RHS)とそのスコ アリングシステムである Habitat Quality Assessment (HQA)を用い,埼玉県,神流川流域の下久保ダム下流 区間の河川環境を評価することを試みた.下久保ダム直 下から下流へ約2.0kmまでの区間には,国指定名勝・ 天然記念物に指定されている三波石峡がある.RHS・HQA の河川環境評価システムが,天然記念物の環境要素を抽 出できるかを検討した. RHSは,河川環境の特徴を評価するシステムであり, 河川環境情報を数値化する試みとしては,実施事例が多 く比較的容易に情報を収集することができる.また, HQAは生物が生息する環境の多様性を数値化すること により評価する方法である.国内河川への適用事例(大 石ほか2006)もあり,調査が比較的短時間・低コストで あるといった観点からも,RHS・HQAの評価システムを 用いた.","PeriodicalId":298589,"journal":{"name":"The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics","volume":"13 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-12-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"121086380","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-12-20DOI: 10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0099.pub2
Annette M. B. De Groot
Bilingualism affects various aspects of verbal and nonverbal cognition. The first part of this entry discusses the influence of bilingualism on language representation and use—verbal cognition. The second part demonstrates its effect on various aspects of nonverbal cognition. The effect of bilingualism on language shows from many studies exhibiting the ubiquitous interaction between bilinguals’ two languages, even in purely monolingual communicative settings. The mutual influence of the two languages is evident in both production and comprehension, in all linguistic subdomains (e.g., phonology, syntax, semantics), and occurs across both pairs of similar and dissimilar languages. A consequence of the inherently interactive nature of the bilingual language system is “accented” language, that is, differences in the linguistic expressions and comprehension processes of monolinguals and bilinguals. This phenomenon is illustrated with examples of phonological, grammatical, and semantic accents, and two possible sources of accented bilingual language are considered: differences between the representations of specific linguistic units in monolinguals and bilinguals, and cross-language activation of linguistic representations in bilinguals. Concerning the effect of bilingualism on nonverbal cognition the question is first posed how linguistic relativity—the idea that the different ways in which languages encode the surrounding world cause their speakers to think about the world differently—affects bilinguals’ conceptual worlds. Next, the relation between bilingualism and intelligence is discussed, recent evidence suggesting that bilingualism is advantageous for intelligence and cognitive functioning in general. The final section focuses on the relation between bilingualism and one specific aspect of cognitive functioning: executive control.
{"title":"Bilingualism and Cognition","authors":"Annette M. B. De Groot","doi":"10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0099.pub2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0099.pub2","url":null,"abstract":"Bilingualism affects various aspects of verbal and nonverbal cognition. The first part of this entry discusses the influence of bilingualism on language representation and use—verbal cognition. The second part demonstrates its effect on various aspects of nonverbal cognition. The effect of bilingualism on language shows from many studies exhibiting the ubiquitous interaction between bilinguals’ two languages, even in purely monolingual communicative settings. The mutual influence of the two languages is evident in both production and comprehension, in all linguistic subdomains (e.g., phonology, syntax, semantics), and occurs across both pairs of similar and dissimilar languages. A consequence of the inherently interactive nature of the bilingual language system is “accented” language, that is, differences in the linguistic expressions and comprehension processes of monolinguals and bilinguals. This phenomenon is illustrated with examples of phonological, grammatical, and semantic accents, and two possible sources of accented bilingual language are considered: differences between the representations of specific linguistic units in monolinguals and bilinguals, and cross-language activation of linguistic representations in bilinguals. Concerning the effect of bilingualism on nonverbal cognition the question is first posed how linguistic relativity—the idea that the different ways in which languages encode the surrounding world cause their speakers to think about the world differently—affects bilinguals’ conceptual worlds. Next, the relation between bilingualism and intelligence is discussed, recent evidence suggesting that bilingualism is advantageous for intelligence and cognitive functioning in general. The final section focuses on the relation between bilingualism and one specific aspect of cognitive functioning: executive control.","PeriodicalId":298589,"journal":{"name":"The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics","volume":"191 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-12-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116408581","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-12-20DOI: 10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0963.pub2
C. Chapelle
{"title":"Language Program Evaluation","authors":"C. Chapelle","doi":"10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0963.pub2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0963.pub2","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":298589,"journal":{"name":"The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics","volume":"41 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-12-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123721352","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-05-28DOI: 10.1002/9781405198431.WBEAL0550.PUB2
K. Browne
{"title":"Intelligibility in World Englishes","authors":"K. Browne","doi":"10.1002/9781405198431.WBEAL0550.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405198431.WBEAL0550.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":298589,"journal":{"name":"The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics","volume":"16 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-05-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129551346","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-05-28DOI: 10.1002/9781405198431.WBEAL1237.PUB2
Phuong Nguyen
{"title":"Uses of Language Assessments","authors":"Phuong Nguyen","doi":"10.1002/9781405198431.WBEAL1237.PUB2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405198431.WBEAL1237.PUB2","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":298589,"journal":{"name":"The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics","volume":"81 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-05-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"134442187","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-12-22DOI: 10.6018/IJES.13.2.185891
A. Green
This paper reviews the progress made in washback studies over the quarter century since Hughes’ (1989) placed it at the centre of his textbook Testing for Language Teachers. Research into washback and the development of models of washback are described and an agenda is suggested for test developers wishing to build washback into their programmes. It is recommended that future projects should pay greater attention to test design features and to the outcomes of learning as well as continuing to explore learner motivation and cultural factors that might encourage participants to react to tests in certain ways, but not in others. Washback research itself is seen to be a potentially valuable tool in persuading participants to adopt new practices.
{"title":"Washback in Language Assessment","authors":"A. Green","doi":"10.6018/IJES.13.2.185891","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.6018/IJES.13.2.185891","url":null,"abstract":"This paper reviews the progress made in washback studies over the quarter century since Hughes’ (1989) placed it at the centre of his textbook Testing for Language Teachers. Research into washback and the development of models of washback are described and an agenda is suggested for test developers wishing to build washback into their programmes. It is recommended that future projects should pay greater attention to test design features and to the outcomes of learning as well as continuing to explore learner motivation and cultural factors that might encourage participants to react to tests in certain ways, but not in others. Washback research itself is seen to be a potentially valuable tool in persuading participants to adopt new practices.","PeriodicalId":298589,"journal":{"name":"The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics","volume":"5 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-12-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128558482","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-12-22DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-12567-7
M. Wedell, Laura Grassick
{"title":"Innovation in Language Teaching and Learning","authors":"M. Wedell, Laura Grassick","doi":"10.1007/978-3-030-12567-7","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12567-7","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":298589,"journal":{"name":"The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics","volume":"27 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-12-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"132588072","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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