IF 23.8 Q1 CHEMISTRY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

EnergyChem

Pub Date : 2025-12-08 DOI: 10.1016/j.enchem.2025.100180

Xingang Yu, Yingying Tian, Jun Tong, Nannan Zheng, Ge Wang, Xiubing Huang

Phase change materials (PCMs) are a class of materials that undergo reversible phase changes under the action of heat and can store and release large amounts of latent heat within a certain temperature range. PCMs, as the core of the phase change thermal storage technology, have excellent energy storage capacity, small temperature changes during the storage and release process, high energy utilization efficiency, and can be used in solar energy storage. However, PCMs themselves have low thermal conductivity, weak visible light absorption, solid-liquid phase change leakage and other problems, which cannot directly store solar energy and limit their applications. It has been found that the introduction of photothermal materials into PCMs can give ordinary PCMs photothermal conversion performance to meet specific requirements such as photothermal conversion in extreme environments, bringing some new potential to the field of PCMs. Photothermal composite phase change materials (CPCMs) demonstrate potential applications across diverse domains including catalysis, energy conversion, drug delivery, shape memory, and solar power generation through their abilities to leverage solar energy for thermal energy storage. A comprehensive overview of CPCMs for solar-thermal conversion and applications is lacking. Here, we comprehensively review the mechanism, classification, and recent applications of CPCMs for solar-thermal conversion and their multifunctional applications, and also highlight the bottlenecks in their current stage of development and further prospects.

相变材料（Phase change materials, PCMs）是一类在热作用下发生可逆相变，并能在一定温度范围内储存和释放大量潜热的材料。pcm作为相变蓄热技术的核心，储能能力优异，蓄放过程温度变化小，能量利用效率高，可用于太阳能储能。但pcm本身存在导热系数低、可见光吸收弱、固液相变泄漏等问题，不能直接存储太阳能，限制了其应用。研究发现，将光热材料引入到pcm中，可以使普通pcm的光热转换性能满足极端环境下光热转换等特定要求，为pcm领域带来一些新的潜力。光热复合相变材料（CPCMs）通过其利用太阳能进行热能储存的能力，在催化、能量转换、药物输送、形状记忆和太阳能发电等多个领域展示了潜在的应用前景。目前缺乏对cpcm在太阳能热转换和应用方面的全面概述。本文对cpcm光热转化的机理、分类、应用现状及多功能应用进行了综述，并对cpcm现阶段的发展瓶颈及发展前景进行了展望。

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引用次数: 0

Seawater electrolysis: Unlocking a new path for hydrogen production 海水电解：开启制氢新途径

IF 23.8 Q1 CHEMISTRY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

EnergyChem

Pub Date : 2025-11-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.enchem.2025.100173

Shivraj Mahadik , Subramani Surendran , Jinuk Choi , Gnanaprakasam Janani , Dae Jun Moon , Gyoung Hwa Jeong , Tae-Eon Park , Kyungwook Park , Yujin Jeong , Gwanghyun Im , Xiaoyan Lu , Heechae Choi , Gibum Kwon , Kyoungsuk Jin , Hee Jung Park , Tae-Hoon Kim , Uk Sim

The hydrogen economy concept is an emerging future scenario designed to address climate change and secure energy for planet Earth, in which water electrolysis combined with renewable energy sources can produce abundant amounts of hydrogen. In recent years, water electrolyzers have been developed for industrial operational conditions. However, there is a significant strain on freshwater when hydrogen is produced on a large scale. Direct seawater electrolysis can rely on freshwater to produce hydrogen on a large scale. However, seawater electrolysis is very challenging due to the presence of chlorine chemistry, sluggish kinetics, and impurities, which make it more difficult. Over the years, immense efforts have been devoted to developing electrocatalysts for seawater electrolysis. The article examines general principles and various electrocatalysts to gain a deeper understanding of the current achievements in catalysts for seawater electrolysis and their prospects. Afterward, novel strategies are suggested for designing effective electrocatalysts, including protective layers for the cathode and anode in seawater electrolysis. Lastly, emerging hybrid seawater electrolysis and electrolyzer technology provide a workable alternative. This review provides the future fields of study that have the potential to be rational extensions of electrocatalyst development toward practical applications.

氢经济概念是为了应对气候变化和地球能源安全而出现的未来情景，其中水电解与可再生能源相结合可以产生大量的氢。近年来，为了满足工业运行条件，对水电解槽进行了开发。然而，当氢气大规模生产时，淡水的压力很大。直接海水电解可以依靠淡水大规模生产氢气。然而，海水电解是非常具有挑战性的，因为氯化学的存在，缓慢的动力学和杂质，使其更加困难。多年来，人们对海水电解电催化剂的开发进行了大量的研究。本文综述了海水电解催化剂的一般原理和各种电催化剂，以进一步了解目前海水电解催化剂的研究进展及其前景。最后，提出了设计有效电催化剂的新策略，包括在海水电解中阴极和阳极设置保护层。最后，新兴的混合海水电解和电解槽技术提供了可行的替代方案。本文对电催化剂未来的研究方向进行了展望，认为这些方向有可能成为电催化剂实际应用的合理延伸。

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引用次数: 0

A sulfinol-type hydrated eutectic electrolyte for efficient and robust combined CO2 capture and electroreduction 一种磺胺醇型水合共晶电解质，用于高效和稳健的二氧化碳捕获和电还原

IF 23.8 Q1 CHEMISTRY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

EnergyChem

Pub Date : 2025-11-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.enchem.2025.100175

Jiasheng Tong, Hangqi Yang, Wanru Chen, Zejun Chen, Shizhen Li, Chuang Peng

Electrolytes play crucial roles in reaction rate and selectivity of CO₂ electroreduction (CO₂RR). Herein, a commercial CO₂ capture medium, i.e., Sulfinol-type hybrid solvent, is employed as electrolyte for efficient and robust CO₂RR. The hybrid electrolyte consists of [BMim]Cl, sulfolane and water, acting as the chemical absorbent/cocatalyst, physical absorbent and diluent respectively. With the combined Sulfinol and deep eutectic features, the electrolyte shows high CO₂ uptake rate and capacity, low viscosity and effective water activity regulation. Consequently, the CO₂RR exhibits high reaction rate and Faradaic efficiency toward CO (FE_CO). Typically, high FE_CO values of over 96% are achieved over a wide potential range from −1.8 to −2.3 V. The robustness of the electrolyte is manifested by its high FE_CO at high water content and facile regeneration by evaporation of water. This work provides insight into the design of advanced electrolytes for both CO₂ capture and electroreduction.

电解质对CO2电还原反应速率和选择性起着至关重要的作用。本文采用商业CO2捕集介质，即亚砜醇型杂化溶剂作为电解液，实现高效、稳健的CO2RR。混合电解质由[BMim]Cl、亚砜和水组成，分别作为化学吸收剂/助催化剂、物理吸收剂和稀释剂。该电解质具有高的CO2吸收率和容量、低粘度和有效的水活度调节等特点。因此，CO2RR对CO （FECO）具有较高的反应速率和法拉第效率。通常，在−1.8至−2.3 V的宽电势范围内，可以实现96%以上的高FECO值。电解质的稳健性表现在其高含水量下的高FECO和易通过水分蒸发再生。这项工作为二氧化碳捕获和电还原的先进电解质的设计提供了见解。

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引用次数: 0

Unveiling the potential of palladium-based materials in electrocatalysis 揭示钯基材料在电催化方面的潜力

IF 23.8 Q1 CHEMISTRY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

EnergyChem

Pub Date : 2025-11-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.enchem.2025.100176

Noor Al-Jammal , Hussein A. Younus , Rashid Al-Hajri , Mohammed Al-Abri , Francis Verpoort

Palladium-based materials are widely recognized for their adaptability in electrocatalytic applications, offering finely tunable electronic properties, surface structures, and strong resistance to intermediate poisoning. Their unique ability to stabilize key reaction intermediates enables outstanding catalytic activity and selectivity across a range of electrochemical processes central to sustainable energy technologies and resource utilization. This review comprehensively explores the advancements in Pd-based catalysts, emphasizing strategies to optimize their performance through alloying, nanostructuring, phase engineering, and surface modifications. A wide range of synthesis techniques, including wet chemical methods, electrodeposition, and templating approaches, has enabled precise control over Pd morphology, composition, and electronic properties, leading to breakthroughs in catalytic efficiency, durability, and cost-effectiveness. Pd-based catalysts have demonstrated outstanding performance across a range of electrocatalytic reactions, including hydrogen evolution (HER), oxygen evolution (OER), oxygen reduction (ORR), hydrogen oxidation (HOR), and formic acid oxidation (FAO) in water-splitting and fuel cell systems, as well as CO₂ reduction (CO₂RR), nitrogen reduction (NRR), and nitrate reduction (NO₃RR) for sustainable fuel and chemical production. The interplay of structural and electronic tuning has allowed Pd-based materials to drive key electrochemical reactions with enhanced stability, selectivity, and mass activity. Despite these advancements, long-term stability, cost, and scalability challenges remain, necessitating further research into alternative Pd-based hybrid materials and novel design strategies. This review provides an in-depth analysis of the progress in Pd-based catalysts, highlighting their potential to drive future innovations in clean energy technologies.

钯基材料因其在电催化应用中的适应性而被广泛认可，提供了精细可调的电子性能、表面结构和对中间中毒的强抗性。其稳定关键反应中间体的独特能力使其在一系列电化学过程中具有出色的催化活性和选择性，这对可持续能源技术和资源利用至关重要。本文综述了钯基催化剂的研究进展，重点介绍了通过合金化、纳米结构、相工程和表面改性来优化其性能的策略。广泛的合成技术，包括湿化学方法、电沉积和模板方法，已经能够精确控制钯的形态、组成和电子性能，从而在催化效率、耐用性和成本效益方面取得突破。钯基催化剂在一系列电催化反应中表现出出色的性能，包括水分解和燃料电池系统中的析氢（HER）、析氧（OER）、氧还原（ORR）、氢氧化（HOR）和甲酸氧化（FAO），以及可持续燃料和化学品生产的二氧化碳还原（CO2RR）、氮还原（NRR）和硝酸盐还原（NO3RR）。结构和电子调谐的相互作用使得pd基材料能够以增强的稳定性、选择性和质量活性来驱动关键的电化学反应。尽管取得了这些进步，但长期稳定性、成本和可扩展性方面的挑战仍然存在，因此需要进一步研究替代pd基混合材料和新的设计策略。本文对钯基催化剂的研究进展进行了深入分析，强调了钯基催化剂在推动未来清洁能源技术创新方面的潜力。

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引用次数: 0

3D-Printed solid-state electrolytes for next-generation batteries: Advances in design, challenges, and future opportunities 用于下一代电池的3d打印固态电解质：设计进步，挑战和未来机遇

IF 23.8 Q1 CHEMISTRY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

EnergyChem

Pub Date : 2025-11-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.enchem.2025.100174

Fazal Ur Rehman , Trang Thi Vu , Jihwan Kim , Yujin Kim , Hyesoo Choi , Nayan Ranjan Singha , Mincheol Chang

Battery technology is undergoing a transformative shift with the integration of 3D printing into solid-state electrolyte (SSE) design, enabling safer, more efficient, and sustainable next-generation energy storage solutions. This review examines recent advancements in 3D-printed SSEs, addressing critical failure mechanisms, performance challenges, and fundamental design principles. Traditional manufacturing methods often struggle to produce complex architectures; however, 3D printing offers exceptional precision, facilitating the fabrication of intricate structures that enhance interfacial compatibility with electrodes, improve thermal stability, and, most importantly, optimize ionic conductivity. This study explores monovalent cations (Na, K, and Li) and multicharged cations (Al³⁺, Ca²⁺, Zn²⁺, and Mg²⁺), highlighting the broad potential of next-generation batteries. By leveraging 3D-printed designs that optimize geometric, chemical, and mechanical properties, key challenges in SSEs are addressed, including poor ionic conductivity and interfacial resistance in inorganic electrolytes, as well as low cation transference numbers and oxidative instability in polymer-based components. Future prospects involve the integration of 3D-printed metals with advanced cathodic chemistries, such as Ni-rich and Li-rich additives, while also exploring renewable organic alternatives—including sulfur, oxygen, and even carbon dioxide—as sustainable components in battery technologies. This review underscores the transformative role of 3D printing in advancing SSEs as frontrunners in clean, efficient, and high-performance energy storage systems.

电池技术正在经历一场变革性的转变，将3D打印集成到固态电解质（SSE）设计中，从而实现更安全、更高效、更可持续的下一代储能解决方案。本文综述了3d打印sse的最新进展，解决了关键失效机制、性能挑战和基本设计原则。传统的制造方法往往难以生产复杂的架构；然而，3D打印提供了卓越的精度，促进了复杂结构的制造，增强了与电极的界面兼容性，提高了热稳定性，最重要的是，优化了离子导电性。这项研究探索了单价阳离子（Na， K和Li）和多电荷阳离子（Al3+, Ca2+， Zn2+和Mg2+），突出了下一代电池的广阔潜力。通过利用优化几何、化学和机械性能的3d打印设计，解决了ssi的关键挑战，包括无机电解质的离子电导率差和界面电阻，以及聚合物基组件的低阳离子转移数和氧化不稳定性。未来的前景包括将3d打印金属与先进的阴极化学物质（如富镍和富锂添加剂）相结合，同时探索可再生有机替代品（包括硫、氧，甚至二氧化碳）作为电池技术的可持续成分。这篇综述强调了3D打印在推动ssi成为清洁、高效和高性能储能系统的领跑者方面的变革性作用。

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引用次数: 0

Recent advances in lithium recovery from oil and gas field produced water by adsorptive and electrochemical approaches 吸附法和电化学法从油气田采出水中回收锂的研究进展

IF 23.8 Q1 CHEMISTRY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

EnergyChem

Pub Date : 2025-09-19 DOI: 10.1016/j.enchem.2025.100172

Guiling Luo , Li Zhang , Muyao He , Yanhong Chao , Haiyan Liu , Wenshuai Zhu , Zhichang Liu , Chunming Xu

As global lithium demand surges amid energy transition imperatives, this review positions itself as a critical synthesis of cutting-edge advancements and strategic insights into lithium recovery from oil and gas field produced water (OGPW)—a vast, underutilized resource. Unlike prior studies focused on conventional brines, we systematically dissect OGPW’s unique physicochemical profile and its implications for lithium extraction, bridging a critical knowledge gap in resource utilization. This work pioneers a comparative analysis of adsorption and electrochemical technologies, emphasizing their adaptability to OGPW’s complex matrix. For adsorption, we spotlight next-generation Ti, Mn, and Al-based adsorbents, detailing innovations in nanostructured architectures, dual-functional ligand grafting, and ion-sieving mechanisms that achieve unprecedented Li⁺ selectivity under high salinity conditions. In electrochemical approaches, we unveil advances in lattice-engineered lithium manganese oxide and heteroatom-doped lithium iron phosphate electrodes, coupled with 3D conductive scaffolds and electrochemical systems, which collectively enhance extraction kinetics and cyclability. By mapping a holistic roadmap, this review not only consolidates fragmented research but also propels the field toward sustainable, high-yield lithium recovery. Our synthesis of emerging trends, unresolved challenges, and interdisciplinary synergies aims to redefine industrial paradigms, provide actionable guidance for policymakers and engineers to transform OGPW into a strategic lithium reserve.

随着全球锂需求在能源转型的迫切需要中激增，本综述将自己定位为对从油气田采出水（OGPW）中回收锂这一巨大但未充分利用的资源的前沿进展和战略见解的重要综合。与以往的常规盐水研究不同，我们系统地剖析了OGPW独特的物理化学特征及其对锂提取的影响，弥合了资源利用方面的关键知识差距。这项工作开创了吸附和电化学技术的比较分析，强调了它们对OGPW复杂基质的适应性。在吸附方面，我们重点介绍了下一代Ti、Mn和al基吸附剂，详细介绍了纳米结构、双功能配体接枝和离子筛选机制方面的创新，这些创新在高盐度条件下实现了前所未有的Li +选择性。在电化学方法方面，我们揭示了晶格工程锰酸锂和杂原子掺杂磷酸铁锂电极的进展，再加上3D导电支架和电化学系统，它们共同增强了提取动力学和可循环性。通过绘制整体路线图，本综述不仅整合了分散的研究，还推动了该领域朝着可持续、高产锂回收的方向发展。我们综合了新兴趋势、未解决的挑战和跨学科的协同作用，旨在重新定义行业范式，为政策制定者和工程师提供可操作的指导，将OGPW转变为战略锂储备。

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引用次数: 0

Structural and interfacial engineering of covalent organic frameworks for enhanced photo- and electrocatalytic performances 用于增强光催化和电催化性能的共价有机框架的结构和界面工程

IF 23.8 Q1 CHEMISTRY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

EnergyChem

Pub Date : 2025-09-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.enchem.2025.100170

Yusran Yusran, Shilun Qiu, Qianrong Fang

Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) have emerged as promising materials for photo- and electrocatalytic applications, offering potential solutions to critical challenges in sustainable energy production and environmental remediation. Their well-defined porosity, tunable architectures, and modular functionalities allow for precise control over chemical and electronic properties, making them ideal candidates for energy conversion and chemical synthesis technologies. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent advancements in the structural and interfacial modulation of COFs to enhance their photo- and electrocatalytic performance. Key modulation strategies, including topological tuning, incorporation of light-responsive and electroactive components, donor-acceptor configurations, and heteroatomic doping, are discussed in detail. The effects of these strategies on light harvesting, charge transfer efficiency, and catalytic site accessibility are highlighted. Finally, the review outlines future directions for further optimization of COF-based catalysts to facilitate their practical deployment in renewable energy applications and sustainable chemical processes.

共价有机框架（COFs）已成为光催化和电催化应用的有前途的材料，为可持续能源生产和环境修复中的关键挑战提供了潜在的解决方案。它们具有良好的孔隙度、可调的结构和模块化的功能，可以精确控制化学和电子特性，使其成为能量转换和化学合成技术的理想选择。本文综述了近年来COFs在结构和界面调节方面的研究进展，以提高其光催化和电催化性能。详细讨论了关键调制策略，包括拓扑调谐，光响应和电活性成分的结合，供体-受体构型和杂原子掺杂。强调了这些策略对光收集、电荷转移效率和催化位点可达性的影响。最后，综述概述了进一步优化cof基催化剂的未来方向，以促进其在可再生能源应用和可持续化学过程中的实际部署。

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引用次数: 0

An overview of solid-state lithium metal batteries: Materials, properties and challenges 固态锂金属电池综述：材料、性能和挑战

IF 23.8 Q1 CHEMISTRY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

EnergyChem

Pub Date : 2025-08-26 DOI: 10.1016/j.enchem.2025.100169

Carlos M. Costa , Vera M. Macedo , Manuel Salado , Liliana C. Fernandes , Mingcai Zhao , Senentxu Lanceros-Méndez

Lithium-ion batteries still have some relevant drawbacks despite their extensive use, mainly in terms of durability and safety concerns related to the use of liquid electrolytes.

Given the unique capability of Li metal, i.e. 3860 mAh.g^-1, solid-state lithium metal batteries based on solid electrolytes emerge as an efficient way to circumvent current battery constraints.

This review shows the latest advances in solid-state lithium metal batteries with focus on the different materials used for their development and the rational design of materials and interfaces. The main materials, battery components, physical-chemical phenomena and parameters determining their functionality are described and discussed. Further, considerations related to battery modelling, advanced characterization, fabrication and future perspective are provided.

尽管锂离子电池被广泛使用，但它仍然存在一些相关的缺陷，主要是在耐用性和与使用液体电解质有关的安全问题上。鉴于锂金属的独特性能，即3860毫安时。G-1，基于固体电解质的固态锂金属电池成为规避当前电池限制的有效方法。本文综述了固态锂金属电池的最新进展，重点介绍了固态锂金属电池的不同发展材料以及材料和界面的合理设计。描述和讨论了主要材料、电池组件、物理化学现象和决定其功能的参数。此外，还提供了与电池建模、高级表征、制造和未来展望相关的考虑因素。

引用次数: 0

A green ammonia utilization pathway: Integrated ammonia-solid oxide fuel cell systems for efficient power generation 绿色氨利用途径：用于高效发电的集成氨固体氧化物燃料电池系统

IF 23.8 Q1 CHEMISTRY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

EnergyChem

Pub Date : 2025-07-24 DOI: 10.1016/j.enchem.2025.100167

Xusheng Wang , Mingchen Gao , Alexander R.P. Harrison , Muhammad Irfan , Xi Lin , Boyang Mao , Binjian Nie , Zhigang Hu , Jianxin Zou

Ammonia (NH₃) is a promising energy carrier to store and transport renewable energy due to its high energy density (18.6 MJ kg^-1, containing 17.6 wt% H₂) and mature storage and transportation. Ammonia-fuelled solid oxide fuel cells (NH₃-SOFC) show multiple clean energy applications due to their high efficiency, near-zero CO₂ emissions, and flexible integration. This work delineates the current status and prospects of integrated NH₃-SOFC technology towards a green ammonia economy by investigating its operating principle, system integration, and cost-competitiveness. Technoeconomic analysis results suggest that the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) for NH₃-SOFC is approximately 0.24 $ kWh^-1. In addition, ammonia has demonstrated a high potential as a green shipping fuel because of its carbon-free and low flammability characteristics, while necessitating industry standards and large-scale application scenarios. It has also been indentified that the large-scale application of NH₃-SOFC largely depends on the reduction in capital cost, electrode materials improvement and volumetric power density increase.

氨（NH3）能量密度高（18.6 MJ kg-1，含H2 17.6 wt%），储运成熟，是一种很有希望储存和运输可再生能源的能量载体。氨燃料固体氧化物燃料电池（NH3-SOFC）由于其高效率、接近零的二氧化碳排放和灵活的集成，显示出多种清洁能源应用。本文通过对NH3-SOFC技术的工作原理、系统集成和成本竞争力的研究，阐述了NH3-SOFC技术走向绿色氨经济的现状和前景。技术经济分析结果表明，NH3-SOFC的平准化电力成本（LCOE）约为0.24美元千瓦时-1。此外，由于氨具有无碳和低可燃性的特点，它作为绿色航运燃料的潜力很大，同时需要行业标准和大规模应用场景。研究还发现，NH3-SOFC的大规模应用很大程度上取决于资本成本的降低、电极材料的改进和体积功率密度的提高。

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引用次数: 0

Transmission electron microscopy in energy chemistry: Current applications and future perspectives 透射电子显微镜在能源化学中的应用与展望

IF 23.8 Q1 CHEMISTRY, MULTIDISCIPLINARY

EnergyChem

Pub Date : 2025-07-23 DOI: 10.1016/j.enchem.2025.100168

Xilin Jia , Qiao Zhang , Jun Tao , Pingxi Mo , Yu Han

The rapid advancement of energy-related technologies has led to increasingly complex material systems featuring hierarchical structures, heterogeneous interfaces, and dynamic behavior. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), with its unparalleled spatial resolution, imaging versatility, and analytical capabilities, provides unique insights into these systems by enabling direct visualization of structure–property relationships at the atomic scale. This review highlights the essential role of modern TEM and scanning TEM (STEM) techniques in energy chemistry. We introduce key imaging modalities alongside complementary spectroscopic and diffraction-based characterization methods. Representative applications are presented across three major categories of energy materials: energy conversion materials, energy storage systems, and nanoporous materials for catalysis and separation. These examples illustrate how careful selection of imaging modes and dose control strategies enables meaningful structural analysis, even for highly beam-sensitive or metastable systems. We conclude with an outlook on future directions, addressing current limitations and emphasizing the need for low-dose, in situ/operando, three-dimensional, and diffraction-based approaches to probe structural complexity under realistic operating conditions.

能源相关技术的快速发展导致了越来越复杂的材料系统，具有层次结构、异质界面和动态行为。透射电子显微镜（TEM）以其无与伦比的空间分辨率、成像多功能性和分析能力，通过在原子尺度上直接可视化结构-性质关系，为这些系统提供了独特的见解。本文综述了现代透射电镜和扫描透射电镜（STEM）技术在能源化学中的重要作用。我们介绍了关键的成像模式，以及互补的光谱和基于衍射的表征方法。主要介绍了三大类能源材料的代表性应用：能量转换材料、能量存储系统和用于催化和分离的纳米多孔材料。这些例子说明了仔细选择成像模式和剂量控制策略如何能够进行有意义的结构分析，即使对于高度光束敏感或亚稳态系统也是如此。最后，我们展望了未来的发展方向，解决了目前的局限性，并强调需要低剂量、原位/操作、三维和基于衍射的方法来探测实际操作条件下的结构复杂性。

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引用次数: 0

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