Pub Date : 2020-07-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0032
Gerjan van Schaaik
The suffix that creates the subject participle for verbs is used on an auxiliary verb in nominal and existential relative clauses, thus showing that they are all modelled on that of the verb. It seems plausible to assume that the object participle is pre-eminently used for non-subjects. This is, however, not irrefutable; in structures labelled Başı-Bozuk construction and Focus-Locus construction the subject participle occurs although the head of the relative clause is not its subject. Adverbial phrases are relativised according to the model of object phrases. The section on various temporal aspects shows that a relative clause based on a compositional tense is formed by an auxiliary verb. Frequently used headless relatives are good candidates for lexicalization. Special attention is given to pseudo-relative clauses; despite their appearance these do not contain an relativised element.
{"title":"Relative clauses","authors":"Gerjan van Schaaik","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0032","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0032","url":null,"abstract":"The suffix that creates the subject participle for verbs is used on an auxiliary verb in nominal and existential relative clauses, thus showing that they are all modelled on that of the verb. It seems plausible to assume that the object participle is pre-eminently used for non-subjects. This is, however, not irrefutable; in structures labelled Başı-Bozuk construction and Focus-Locus construction the subject participle occurs although the head of the relative clause is not its subject. Adverbial phrases are relativised according to the model of object phrases. The section on various temporal aspects shows that a relative clause based on a compositional tense is formed by an auxiliary verb. Frequently used headless relatives are good candidates for lexicalization. Special attention is given to pseudo-relative clauses; despite their appearance these do not contain an relativised element.","PeriodicalId":311517,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Turkish Grammar","volume":"6 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"133268834","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-07-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0013
Gerjan van Schaaik
As function words postpositions play a very important role in the syntax of Turkish. These elements are regarded as lexical items conveying some kind of abstract meaning relevant for their complement. Most postpositions require the complement to take a fixed case marker; thereby excluding the accusative. A postposition plus its complement is called a postpositional phrase and functions as an adverbial phrase. There are various postpositions expressing spatial relations such as direction and location, another small group expresses temporal relations such as beginning, duration, end, and also excess, but a sizeable series of notions can be expressed by one particular postposition only: instrument, company, means of transportation, quality, quantity, inclusion, exclusion, difference, and the like. The final section describes the nominal and adjectival properties of a small number of postpositions.
{"title":"Postpositions","authors":"Gerjan van Schaaik","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0013","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0013","url":null,"abstract":"As function words postpositions play a very important role in the syntax of Turkish. These elements are regarded as lexical items conveying some kind of abstract meaning relevant for their complement. Most postpositions require the complement to take a fixed case marker; thereby excluding the accusative. A postposition plus its complement is called a postpositional phrase and functions as an adverbial phrase. There are various postpositions expressing spatial relations such as direction and location, another small group expresses temporal relations such as beginning, duration, end, and also excess, but a sizeable series of notions can be expressed by one particular postposition only: instrument, company, means of transportation, quality, quantity, inclusion, exclusion, difference, and the like. The final section describes the nominal and adjectival properties of a small number of postpositions.","PeriodicalId":311517,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Turkish Grammar","volume":"40 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128724633","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-07-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0023
Gerjan van Schaaik
Embroidering the distinction made in the chapter (18) on negation, this chapter discusses the full spectrum of simple sentences with a nominal predicate based on a noun, genitive-possessive construction, question-word, pronoun, demonstrative, and copular forms. Furthermore, negated and question forms, as well as combinations thereof, are discussed for these types of predicate. Besides a preliminary account of ordering principles for the noun phrase, special attention is given to copular forms of possessive nouns and inflected pronouns. Existential predicatesare: var ‘there is’ and its negational counterpart yok. Such structures are essential when it comes to expressing availability or possession. The final section is on verbal predicates, showing that there are two ordering patterns for the relative positions of the question particle and personal endings.
{"title":"Simple sentences","authors":"Gerjan van Schaaik","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0023","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0023","url":null,"abstract":"Embroidering the distinction made in the chapter (18) on negation, this chapter discusses the full spectrum of simple sentences with a nominal predicate based on a noun, genitive-possessive construction, question-word, pronoun, demonstrative, and copular forms. Furthermore, negated and question forms, as well as combinations thereof, are discussed for these types of predicate. Besides a preliminary account of ordering principles for the noun phrase, special attention is given to copular forms of possessive nouns and inflected pronouns. Existential predicatesare: var ‘there is’ and its negational counterpart yok. Such structures are essential when it comes to expressing availability or possession. The final section is on verbal predicates, showing that there are two ordering patterns for the relative positions of the question particle and personal endings.","PeriodicalId":311517,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Turkish Grammar","volume":"28 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125343222","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-07-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0024
Gerjan van Schaaik
Tense is typically a trait of verbs and the suffixes associated with it cannot be applied to members of other lexical categories. But still it is possible to imagine something expressed by a nominal sentence to have been the case in the past. Turkish has a small number of suffixes which can be applied to all types of sentence in order to create a certain projection. The first section deals with projection in the past, and interestingly, application to a tensed verbal predicate leads to compound tenses. Next, the suffix associated with indirect observation (reported past, inference) is introduced, and thirdly, the suffix which deals with hypothetical statements is discussed. There are many possible and impossible combinations across these three suffixes. The fourth suffix is used for assumptions and in statements of general validity.
{"title":"Projections","authors":"Gerjan van Schaaik","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0024","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0024","url":null,"abstract":"Tense is typically a trait of verbs and the suffixes associated with it cannot be applied to members of other lexical categories. But still it is possible to imagine something expressed by a nominal sentence to have been the case in the past. Turkish has a small number of suffixes which can be applied to all types of sentence in order to create a certain projection. The first section deals with projection in the past, and interestingly, application to a tensed verbal predicate leads to compound tenses. Next, the suffix associated with indirect observation (reported past, inference) is introduced, and thirdly, the suffix which deals with hypothetical statements is discussed. There are many possible and impossible combinations across these three suffixes. The fourth suffix is used for assumptions and in statements of general validity.","PeriodicalId":311517,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Turkish Grammar","volume":"4 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122284738","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-07-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0010
Gerjan van Schaaik
Whereas the dative and ablative case markers are primarily used in combination with verbs denoting movement to and from some object, the locative signifies that all movement is absent. This natural relation justifies a simultaneous discussion of these case forms in deictic pronouns. These markers play a crucial role in expressions based on the genitive-possessive construction applied to nouns denoting a space. Such constructions fulfil the same job as prepositional phrases in other languages. Interestingly, these space nouns are used as pure adjectives as well, and in the final sections two other peculiarities are illustrated. Besides a fully fledged genitive-possessive construction, for metaphorical usage there is a construct without the genitive, the possessive part of which has much in common with a postposition. Secondly, adverbial phrases based on nouns denoting some location have come into existence in a similar way.
{"title":"Spatial orientations","authors":"Gerjan van Schaaik","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0010","url":null,"abstract":"Whereas the dative and ablative case markers are primarily used in combination with verbs denoting movement to and from some object, the locative signifies that all movement is absent. This natural relation justifies a simultaneous discussion of these case forms in deictic pronouns. These markers play a crucial role in expressions based on the genitive-possessive construction applied to nouns denoting a space. Such constructions fulfil the same job as prepositional phrases in other languages. Interestingly, these space nouns are used as pure adjectives as well, and in the final sections two other peculiarities are illustrated. Besides a fully fledged genitive-possessive construction, for metaphorical usage there is a construct without the genitive, the possessive part of which has much in common with a postposition. Secondly, adverbial phrases based on nouns denoting some location have come into existence in a similar way.","PeriodicalId":311517,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Turkish Grammar","volume":"31 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127949125","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-07-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0031
Gerjan van Schaaik
With three lexical categories—noun, adjective, verb—there are nine theoretical derivational pathways for a transition of an item from one category to another. How adjectives are made from nouns and conversely, as well as how category-internal operations are carried out, is shown in the first two sections. The section ‘other formations’ gives an overview of various unproductive formations. Because of its recursive nature the process of nominal compounding is a particular powerful derivational device. Some special attention is given to derivatives and the use of geographical names, names of nations, peoples, etc. Also, the Persian ezafe construction (izafet) is dealt with, especially because this construction is abundantly present in the older literature. The final three sections discuss and illustrate the formation and usage of three types of deverbal noun.
{"title":"Formation of adjectives and nouns","authors":"Gerjan van Schaaik","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0031","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0031","url":null,"abstract":"With three lexical categories—noun, adjective, verb—there are nine theoretical derivational pathways for a transition of an item from one category to another. How adjectives are made from nouns and conversely, as well as how category-internal operations are carried out, is shown in the first two sections. The section ‘other formations’ gives an overview of various unproductive formations. Because of its recursive nature the process of nominal compounding is a particular powerful derivational device. Some special attention is given to derivatives and the use of geographical names, names of nations, peoples, etc. Also, the Persian ezafe construction (izafet) is dealt with, especially because this construction is abundantly present in the older literature. The final three sections discuss and illustrate the formation and usage of three types of deverbal noun.","PeriodicalId":311517,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Turkish Grammar","volume":"136 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116666373","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-07-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0005
Gerjan van Schaaik
The principles of twofold vowel harmony and fourfold vowel harmony form, together with a number of consonant assimilations, the core of what at first sight looks like an enormous variation in suffixes. Since this apparent proliferation is largely predictable, it can neatly be reduced by adopting archetypical notations: –(y)E can be rewritten as four variants of the dative suffix: –ye, –ya, –e, and –a, and similarly, using –TE for the locative is more economical than spelling out –te, –ta, –de, and –da all the time. Another important issue is the question of how to deal with variable word stems. Only five noun classes exhibit stem variation: a dictionary form and an alternative stem; the latter being employed when a vowel follows via suffixation. The underlying mechanism is the process of re-syllabification, as set forth in the final section.
{"title":"Morphological variation *","authors":"Gerjan van Schaaik","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0005","url":null,"abstract":"The principles of twofold vowel harmony and fourfold vowel harmony form, together with a number of consonant assimilations, the core of what at first sight looks like an enormous variation in suffixes. Since this apparent proliferation is largely predictable, it can neatly be reduced by adopting archetypical notations: –(y)E can be rewritten as four variants of the dative suffix: –ye, –ya, –e, and –a, and similarly, using –TE for the locative is more economical than spelling out –te, –ta, –de, and –da all the time. Another important issue is the question of how to deal with variable word stems. Only five noun classes exhibit stem variation: a dictionary form and an alternative stem; the latter being employed when a vowel follows via suffixation. The underlying mechanism is the process of re-syllabification, as set forth in the final section.","PeriodicalId":311517,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Turkish Grammar","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130332778","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-07-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0025
Gerjan van Schaaik
Certain pronouns exhibit inherent plurality and a corollary of this property is that multiple subjects require agreement (or concord): the expression of plurality on the predicate. Hence it takes a personal marker agreeing in person and number with that subject. Similar phenomena play a role in postponed suffixation, that is, when the suffixes for person and number in a clause occur solely in the final clause of a sentence. A special problem is posed by the question of what exactly determines the position where the personal marker for the third person plural should be placed. It is shown that notions such as property attribution, class inclusion, and identification are the mechanisms which are the crucial factors in the placement of the plural marker.
{"title":"On plurality","authors":"Gerjan van Schaaik","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0025","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0025","url":null,"abstract":"Certain pronouns exhibit inherent plurality and a corollary of this property is that multiple subjects require agreement (or concord): the expression of plurality on the predicate. Hence it takes a personal marker agreeing in person and number with that subject. Similar phenomena play a role in postponed suffixation, that is, when the suffixes for person and number in a clause occur solely in the final clause of a sentence. A special problem is posed by the question of what exactly determines the position where the personal marker for the third person plural should be placed. It is shown that notions such as property attribution, class inclusion, and identification are the mechanisms which are the crucial factors in the placement of the plural marker.","PeriodicalId":311517,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Turkish Grammar","volume":"21 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"117134734","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-07-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0014
Gerjan van Schaaik
A popular method of classifying adverbs is by looking at what they modify: adjective or verb. Another criterion is whether or not the adverbial expression reflects an attitude of the speaker towards the content of his utterance. Both groups, objective and subjective adverbs, contain large numbers of lexical adverbs, all highly conventionalized. Other groups sharing these properties are adverbs of place and indeterminate adverbials. Adverbial phrases can be formed in several ways: by using an adjective, by drawing from the lexical stock of ready-to-use adverbs, by various forms of suffixation, and by reduplication. Adverbials based on the notions ‘with’ and ‘without’ deserve special attention, particularly with respect to possessive expressions. The final section discusses constructions based on kinship terms which do not follow the canonical suffix ordering.
{"title":"Adverbs and their like","authors":"Gerjan van Schaaik","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0014","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0014","url":null,"abstract":"A popular method of classifying adverbs is by looking at what they modify: adjective or verb. Another criterion is whether or not the adverbial expression reflects an attitude of the speaker towards the content of his utterance. Both groups, objective and subjective adverbs, contain large numbers of lexical adverbs, all highly conventionalized. Other groups sharing these properties are adverbs of place and indeterminate adverbials. Adverbial phrases can be formed in several ways: by using an adjective, by drawing from the lexical stock of ready-to-use adverbs, by various forms of suffixation, and by reduplication. Adverbials based on the notions ‘with’ and ‘without’ deserve special attention, particularly with respect to possessive expressions. The final section discusses constructions based on kinship terms which do not follow the canonical suffix ordering.","PeriodicalId":311517,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Turkish Grammar","volume":"25 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125455315","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-07-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0006
Gerjan van Schaaik
This chapter elaborates on the difference between the two stem forms nouns may have and it is argued that linguistic rules which derive one stem from the other do not work. A plausible explanation is based on statistical information and is further motivated by the huge number of exceptions typical for such rules. A case is put up for just memorizing nouns with two stems. Next, the types of suffix that may be added to nominal stems are discussed together with the order in which they must appear. Sections on nominal inflection instantiating these types follow: plural, possessive, and case markers. Since the six case markers fulfil several non-related functions in the sentence, relatively much space is given to this topic. A short section on the spelling of proper names in relation to suffixation concludes this chapter.
{"title":"Nouns","authors":"Gerjan van Schaaik","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0006","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0006","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter elaborates on the difference between the two stem forms nouns may have and it is argued that linguistic rules which derive one stem from the other do not work. A plausible explanation is based on statistical information and is further motivated by the huge number of exceptions typical for such rules. A case is put up for just memorizing nouns with two stems. Next, the types of suffix that may be added to nominal stems are discussed together with the order in which they must appear. Sections on nominal inflection instantiating these types follow: plural, possessive, and case markers. Since the six case markers fulfil several non-related functions in the sentence, relatively much space is given to this topic. A short section on the spelling of proper names in relation to suffixation concludes this chapter.","PeriodicalId":311517,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Turkish Grammar","volume":"23 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129703663","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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