Pub Date : 2020-07-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0035
Gerjan van Schaaik
Not only transitive verbs can take a sentential complement. The lexical category of adjectives contains a limited number of items that can take a sentential complement. Also certain nouns, such as kinship terms, make sense only with some other notion in the background, and there are two ways in which this is expressed: by a genitive-possessive construction or by a nominal compound with a sentential complement. The third section shows that adjectives, nouns, and adverbs expressing an epistemic modality take their sentential complements in a similar way. An alternative is found in existential constructions with an infinitival complement in the dative. This pattern is common to predicates expressing a deontic modality as well. Postpositional sentential complements are treated in the final sections.
{"title":"Sentential complements","authors":"Gerjan van Schaaik","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0035","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0035","url":null,"abstract":"Not only transitive verbs can take a sentential complement. The lexical category of adjectives contains a limited number of items that can take a sentential complement. Also certain nouns, such as kinship terms, make sense only with some other notion in the background, and there are two ways in which this is expressed: by a genitive-possessive construction or by a nominal compound with a sentential complement. The third section shows that adjectives, nouns, and adverbs expressing an epistemic modality take their sentential complements in a similar way. An alternative is found in existential constructions with an infinitival complement in the dative. This pattern is common to predicates expressing a deontic modality as well. Postpositional sentential complements are treated in the final sections.","PeriodicalId":311517,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Turkish Grammar","volume":"121 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116831699","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-07-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0015
Gerjan van Schaaik
In this chapter an overview is presented of the main characteristics of infinitival verb forms. First of all, the infinitive is the form in which a verb is included in most dictionaries and word lists. Secondly, the infinitive form is built up by a verb stem plus a suffix and application of this suffix is required whenever the verb (plus its complements) is used as the object of some other verb, the main verb. Depending on the type of main verb, the infinitive behaves in some respects like a noun: it can take a case marker, but not a plural marker. Apart from its syntactic role as object, an uninflected infinitival verb form is used as subject or predicate.
{"title":"Infinitival forms","authors":"Gerjan van Schaaik","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0015","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0015","url":null,"abstract":"In this chapter an overview is presented of the main characteristics of infinitival verb forms. First of all, the infinitive is the form in which a verb is included in most dictionaries and word lists. Secondly, the infinitive form is built up by a verb stem plus a suffix and application of this suffix is required whenever the verb (plus its complements) is used as the object of some other verb, the main verb. Depending on the type of main verb, the infinitive behaves in some respects like a noun: it can take a case marker, but not a plural marker. Apart from its syntactic role as object, an uninflected infinitival verb form is used as subject or predicate.","PeriodicalId":311517,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Turkish Grammar","volume":"41 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115318252","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-07-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0034
Gerjan van Schaaik
This chapter discusses how recursion works for several types of verbal predicates. Every verb that allows for a sentential complement based on a verb can form the core of such a complement itself. These comprise verbs of perception such as see, hear, feel and verbs of mental content such as know, remember, believe, suppose, and the like. The type of overall constituent ordering in Turkish is often characterized as subject-object-verb; the verb is preferably put at the end of the sentence and all other constituents precede it. This has important implications for the internal structure of the Turkish sentence, namely that the embedded verb in a sentential complement undergoes the process of nominalization, as is visible in suffixes signalling tense and person. Passive verbs are formed by suffixation and this explains why stacking of passive forms is quite common as well.
{"title":"Stacking embedded sentences","authors":"Gerjan van Schaaik","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0034","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0034","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter discusses how recursion works for several types of verbal predicates. Every verb that allows for a sentential complement based on a verb can form the core of such a complement itself. These comprise verbs of perception such as see, hear, feel and verbs of mental content such as know, remember, believe, suppose, and the like. The type of overall constituent ordering in Turkish is often characterized as subject-object-verb; the verb is preferably put at the end of the sentence and all other constituents precede it. This has important implications for the internal structure of the Turkish sentence, namely that the embedded verb in a sentential complement undergoes the process of nominalization, as is visible in suffixes signalling tense and person. Passive verbs are formed by suffixation and this explains why stacking of passive forms is quite common as well.","PeriodicalId":311517,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Turkish Grammar","volume":"41 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"114671115","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-07-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0016
Gerjan van Schaaik
The smallest unit of a verb is its stem and it is this stem that is most frequently used as the imperative. There are other means as well, all based on a stem plus a suffix: a polite request is issued in two ways, depending on whether one or more persons are being addressed. A third form is the compelling request, being applied as encouragement or to convey a certain degree of impatience. A paraphrased request is formed by using, for instance, an affirmative of negated present-tense form or by a verb form expressing possibility. Instructions can also be given in a declarative form expressing present or future. A certain ‘imperative’ effect can of course also be achieved by using modal forms corresponding to ‘can’ and ‘may’.
{"title":"Imperative forms","authors":"Gerjan van Schaaik","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0016","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0016","url":null,"abstract":"The smallest unit of a verb is its stem and it is this stem that is most frequently used as the imperative. There are other means as well, all based on a stem plus a suffix: a polite request is issued in two ways, depending on whether one or more persons are being addressed. A third form is the compelling request, being applied as encouragement or to convey a certain degree of impatience. A paraphrased request is formed by using, for instance, an affirmative of negated present-tense form or by a verb form expressing possibility. Instructions can also be given in a declarative form expressing present or future. A certain ‘imperative’ effect can of course also be achieved by using modal forms corresponding to ‘can’ and ‘may’.","PeriodicalId":311517,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Turkish Grammar","volume":"32 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128156900","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-07-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0033
Gerjan van Schaaik
As an introduction to subordination the various functions of the particle ki are presented. The central question is how sentences are used as subject, object, and predicate. First, predicates and subjects are discussed, followed by a thorough treatment of direct and indirect speech. This includes certain colloquialisms based on the optative. After this intermezzo the discussion is resumed for direct objects based on both infinitival as well as on finite forms. The choice between these depends on the semantics of the verb involved. Next, the relation between secondary predicates (small clauses) and raising phenomena is explained, which all form peculiar types of embedding. Furthermore, it is shown that there are seven verbal classes, each of which takes either one, two, or three types of complement, accordingly being expressed by one propositional or two predicational types of complementation. The final sections deal with passive and postpositional embeddings.
{"title":"Subordination and embedding","authors":"Gerjan van Schaaik","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0033","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0033","url":null,"abstract":"As an introduction to subordination the various functions of the particle ki are presented. The central question is how sentences are used as subject, object, and predicate. First, predicates and subjects are discussed, followed by a thorough treatment of direct and indirect speech. This includes certain colloquialisms based on the optative. After this intermezzo the discussion is resumed for direct objects based on both infinitival as well as on finite forms. The choice between these depends on the semantics of the verb involved. Next, the relation between secondary predicates (small clauses) and raising phenomena is explained, which all form peculiar types of embedding. Furthermore, it is shown that there are seven verbal classes, each of which takes either one, two, or three types of complement, accordingly being expressed by one propositional or two predicational types of complementation. The final sections deal with passive and postpositional embeddings.","PeriodicalId":311517,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Turkish Grammar","volume":"9 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"131292918","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-07-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0002
Gerjan van Schaaik
This chapter presents the Latin-based alphabet of Turkish, which differs from that of English in the extra letters ç, ğ, ı, ö, ş, and ü, whereas it lacks q, w, and x. A detailed account is given of vowels, of consonants not present in the English alphabet, and of consonants shared by both languages. The notions front and back for vowels are introduced, as well as the notions voiced versus voiceless for consonants. Next, attention is given to aspiration of voiceless plosives. The most conspicuous letters for which the phonological environment determines their sound value are r and ğ; the former being pronounced with a kind of rustling at the end of a word, and the latter functioning either as a lengthening marker or as a symbol representing the y-sound. This chapter ends with the Turkish telephone alphabet.
{"title":"The alphabet *","authors":"Gerjan van Schaaik","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0002","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0002","url":null,"abstract":"This chapter presents the Latin-based alphabet of Turkish, which differs from that of English in the extra letters ç, ğ, ı, ö, ş, and ü, whereas it lacks q, w, and x. A detailed account is given of vowels, of consonants not present in the English alphabet, and of consonants shared by both languages. The notions front and back for vowels are introduced, as well as the notions voiced versus voiceless for consonants. Next, attention is given to aspiration of voiceless plosives. The most conspicuous letters for which the phonological environment determines their sound value are r and ğ; the former being pronounced with a kind of rustling at the end of a word, and the latter functioning either as a lengthening marker or as a symbol representing the y-sound. This chapter ends with the Turkish telephone alphabet.","PeriodicalId":311517,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Turkish Grammar","volume":"61 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"128679981","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Besides an outline of how interrogative pronouns (those for people, things, location, reason, purpose, quality, quantity, etc.), personal, and demonstrative pronouns are inflected and used, a thorough discussion is devoted to their plural, possessive, and case-marked forms. Also the use of personal pronouns in invective expressions is elucidated, as well as the use of the possessive marker first-person singular to express affection or respect in addressing a person. Indefinite pronouns are not really a different kettle of fish, since most of them can be inflected throughout, and this holds for reflexive and reciprocal pronouns as well. The properties of the invariant suffix –ki(n) placed after a genitive case marker form the topic of the final section, in which special attention is given to possessive pronouns.
{"title":"Pronouns","authors":"Gerjan van Schaaik","doi":"10.2307/j.ctvvh8522.27","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvvh8522.27","url":null,"abstract":"Besides an outline of how interrogative pronouns (those for people, things, location, reason, purpose, quality, quantity, etc.), personal, and demonstrative pronouns are inflected and used, a thorough discussion is devoted to their plural, possessive, and case-marked forms. Also the use of personal pronouns in invective expressions is elucidated, as well as the use of the possessive marker first-person singular to express affection or respect in addressing a person. Indefinite pronouns are not really a different kettle of fish, since most of them can be inflected throughout, and this holds for reflexive and reciprocal pronouns as well. The properties of the invariant suffix –ki(n) placed after a genitive case marker form the topic of the final section, in which special attention is given to possessive pronouns.","PeriodicalId":311517,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Turkish Grammar","volume":"48 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129751468","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-07-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0020
Gerjan van Schaaik
Turkish has a multifaceted verbal system which can be understood only if studied from within: it has two past- and three present-tense forms and one future tense. Although the notion of tense is used here, it should be taken with a grain of salt, for many verb forms are opposed along the lines of future versus non-future, completed versus ongoing action, or with or without temporal reference. Thus, Present-1 is typical for a non-completed action, Future for actions not yet begun, Past-1 denotes completed actions not witnessed by the speaker, whereas using Past-2 makes the speaker witness. Present-2 is a non-tense, since it does not relate to any moment in time, and Present-3 is used in formal speech. The place of the infinitive among tense forms is discussed and the final section goes into matters of meaning and interpretation.
{"title":"Present, past, and future *","authors":"Gerjan van Schaaik","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0020","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0020","url":null,"abstract":"Turkish has a multifaceted verbal system which can be understood only if studied from within: it has two past- and three present-tense forms and one future tense. Although the notion of tense is used here, it should be taken with a grain of salt, for many verb forms are opposed along the lines of future versus non-future, completed versus ongoing action, or with or without temporal reference. Thus, Present-1 is typical for a non-completed action, Future for actions not yet begun, Past-1 denotes completed actions not witnessed by the speaker, whereas using Past-2 makes the speaker witness. Present-2 is a non-tense, since it does not relate to any moment in time, and Present-3 is used in formal speech. The place of the infinitive among tense forms is discussed and the final section goes into matters of meaning and interpretation.","PeriodicalId":311517,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Turkish Grammar","volume":"47 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115708101","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-07-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0012
Gerjan van Schaaik
A thorough treatment of adverbial expressions should include indications of time and dates. It is for that reason that this chapter starts out with the clock. Next are notions related to periods such as days, months, years, and centuries, whether or not combined with expressions specifying the beginning, middle, or end of some period. Other notions in the scope of the current topic are next and last, after and before, names of the days, months, seasons, and the formulation of dates. Not surprisingly, many forms can be combined and a peculiarity is that certain combinations are exclusively formed by compounding. Quite like genitive and locative phrases, phrases based on a temporal noun can also take the suffix –ki(n). The final section discusses a property that –ki(n) shares with the possessive suffix –(s)i(n), namely anaphoric and cataphoric reference.
{"title":"Times and dates","authors":"Gerjan van Schaaik","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0012","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0012","url":null,"abstract":"A thorough treatment of adverbial expressions should include indications of time and dates. It is for that reason that this chapter starts out with the clock. Next are notions related to periods such as days, months, years, and centuries, whether or not combined with expressions specifying the beginning, middle, or end of some period. Other notions in the scope of the current topic are next and last, after and before, names of the days, months, seasons, and the formulation of dates. Not surprisingly, many forms can be combined and a peculiarity is that certain combinations are exclusively formed by compounding. Quite like genitive and locative phrases, phrases based on a temporal noun can also take the suffix –ki(n). The final section discusses a property that –ki(n) shares with the possessive suffix –(s)i(n), namely anaphoric and cataphoric reference.","PeriodicalId":311517,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Turkish Grammar","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116850786","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-07-23DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0022
Gerjan van Schaaik
The reason why this chapter on necessity and hypothesis comes directly after the chapters on tense is found in the fact that each of these notions is expressed by a verbal suffix which is morphotactically equivalent to those for tense. Besides a verbal suffix denoting necessity, there are many other verbal constructions, too, for the expression of subjective and objective modality. And on the other hand, necessity and related notions such as obligation, as well as compulsion, can also be expressed by adjectival predicates and quite a lot of space is reserved for the discussion of all the ins and outs of such analytic devices. In the second part of this chapter a suffix is discussed that forms the irrealis, by means of which actions or events are represented each as an assumption, supposition, or hypothesis.
{"title":"Necessity and hypothesis","authors":"Gerjan van Schaaik","doi":"10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0022","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198851509.003.0022","url":null,"abstract":"The reason why this chapter on necessity and hypothesis comes directly after the chapters on tense is found in the fact that each of these notions is expressed by a verbal suffix which is morphotactically equivalent to those for tense. Besides a verbal suffix denoting necessity, there are many other verbal constructions, too, for the expression of subjective and objective modality. And on the other hand, necessity and related notions such as obligation, as well as compulsion, can also be expressed by adjectival predicates and quite a lot of space is reserved for the discussion of all the ins and outs of such analytic devices. In the second part of this chapter a suffix is discussed that forms the irrealis, by means of which actions or events are represented each as an assumption, supposition, or hypothesis.","PeriodicalId":311517,"journal":{"name":"The Oxford Turkish Grammar","volume":"8 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"125997778","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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