Pub Date : 2025-12-01Epub Date: 2025-07-16DOI: 10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100331
Furkan Khan, Takuya Miura, Yoshiaki Morisada, Kohsaku Ushioda, Hidetoshi Fujii
Sacrificing-sheet linear friction welding (SSLFW) is a novel solid-state joining technique developed to address the challenges of dissimilar welding between S45C steel and A6061 aluminum alloy, which are difficult to join using conventional linear friction welding (LFW). In this method, a S45C center sheet is linearly oscillated while the two base materials, i.e., S45C and A6061, are pressed against it using a center-driven double-sided LFW machine. The center sheet acts as a sacrificial sheet, which is progressively expelled from the joint interface during welding owing to thermomechanical effect from each side, thereby enabling direct joining between the base materials. This study investigates the effects of key process parameters on mechanical properties and interfacial microstructure, and clarifies the bonding mechanism of SSLFW. Optimum welding conditions with 2 mm upset length, 300 MPa applied pressure toward A6061, 1 s preheat time, and 50 MPa preheat pressure produced sound, defect-free joints with a thin, continuous intermetallic compound (IMC) layer of approximately 100 nm. These conditions enabled simultaneous plastic deformation of both base materials through sacrificing role of center sheet and effective suppression of unbonded regions. The resulting as-welded joint achieved a peak tensile strength of ∼235.3 MPa, corresponding to a joint efficiency of ∼73 % with respect to the A6061 base metal. Post-weld artificial aging significantly exhibited hardness recovery on the A6061 side, enhancing the joint strength to ∼307 MPa and increasing joint efficiency to ∼96 %. These results demonstrate the high potential of SSLFW for sound dissimilar metal joining.
{"title":"Process parameter optimization and bonding mechanism in dissimilar S45C/A6061 joints via novel sacrificing-sheet linear friction welding","authors":"Furkan Khan, Takuya Miura, Yoshiaki Morisada, Kohsaku Ushioda, Hidetoshi Fujii","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100331","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100331","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Sacrificing-sheet linear friction welding (SSLFW) is a novel solid-state joining technique developed to address the challenges of dissimilar welding between S45C steel and A6061 aluminum alloy, which are difficult to join using conventional linear friction welding (LFW). In this method, a S45C center sheet is linearly oscillated while the two base materials, i.e., S45C and A6061, are pressed against it using a center-driven double-sided LFW machine. The center sheet acts as a sacrificial sheet, which is progressively expelled from the joint interface during welding owing to thermomechanical effect from each side, thereby enabling direct joining between the base materials. This study investigates the effects of key process parameters on mechanical properties and interfacial microstructure, and clarifies the bonding mechanism of SSLFW. Optimum welding conditions with 2 mm upset length, 300 MPa applied pressure toward A6061, 1 s preheat time, and 50 MPa preheat pressure produced sound, defect-free joints with a thin, continuous intermetallic compound (IMC) layer of approximately 100 nm. These conditions enabled simultaneous plastic deformation of both base materials through sacrificing role of center sheet and effective suppression of unbonded regions. The resulting as-welded joint achieved a peak tensile strength of ∼235.3 MPa, corresponding to a joint efficiency of ∼73 % with respect to the A6061 base metal. Post-weld artificial aging significantly exhibited hardness recovery on the A6061 side, enhancing the joint strength to ∼307 MPa and increasing joint efficiency to ∼96 %. These results demonstrate the high potential of SSLFW for sound dissimilar metal joining.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"12 ","pages":"Article 100331"},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144686359","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-01Epub Date: 2025-08-11DOI: 10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100340
Fadi Al-Badour , Ahmad H. Bawagnih , Ahmed Ali , Rami K. Suleiman , Necar Merah
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is an advanced solid-state joining technique that offers an effective solution for repairing surface cracks in aluminum alloys. This study investigates the repair of an artificially induced 2 mm square groove in AA6061-T6 aluminum alloy plate; resemble pre-repair preparation, using friction stir processing (FSP), incorporating an aluminum filler rod and silicon carbide (SiC) nanoparticles as a reinforcement to ensure complete crack sealing. FSP was conducted on both cracked and crack-free samples, with a focus on the impact of tool offset during the repair process. Tool offsets of 0 mm, 1.75 mm, and 3.5 mm were employed toward the advancing side to assess their influence on the repair process. Mechanical testing, microstructural characterization, temperature, and force analysis were performed to comprehensively evaluate the repair strategy. The repaired samples exhibited an average ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of approximately 180 MPa, closely matching the 186 MPa observed in crack-free bead-on-plate welds. Additionally, the microhardness at stir zone (SZ) improved to average values of 77 HV for 0 mm offset and 80 HV for 1.75 mm offset, compared to 70 HV in the bead-on-plate welds . Despite the presence of microstructural defects, the use of tool offset contributed to satisfactory mechanical performance. However, samples welded with 0 mm tool offset exhibited slightly superior mechanical properties. Overall, this research highlights the feasibility of using FSP, combined with SiC nanoparticles reinforced filler material and tool offset control, as a promising approach for effective surface crack repair in aluminum alloys, providing a foundation for further process optimization and industrial application.
{"title":"Surface cracks repair in AA6061-T6 aluminum alloys using friction stir processing","authors":"Fadi Al-Badour , Ahmad H. Bawagnih , Ahmed Ali , Rami K. Suleiman , Necar Merah","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100340","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100340","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is an advanced solid-state joining technique that offers an effective solution for repairing surface cracks in aluminum alloys. This study investigates the repair of an artificially induced 2 mm square groove in AA6061-T6 aluminum alloy plate; resemble pre-repair preparation, using friction stir processing (FSP), incorporating an aluminum filler rod and silicon carbide (SiC) nanoparticles as a reinforcement to ensure complete crack sealing. FSP was conducted on both cracked and crack-free samples, with a focus on the impact of tool offset during the repair process. Tool offsets of 0 mm, 1.75 mm, and 3.5 mm were employed toward the advancing side to assess their influence on the repair process. Mechanical testing, microstructural characterization, temperature, and force analysis were performed to comprehensively evaluate the repair strategy. The repaired samples exhibited an average ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of approximately 180 MPa, closely matching the 186 MPa observed in crack-free bead-on-plate welds. Additionally, the microhardness at stir zone (SZ) improved to average values of 77 HV for 0 mm offset and 80 HV for 1.75 mm offset, compared to 70 HV in the bead-on-plate welds . Despite the presence of microstructural defects, the use of tool offset contributed to satisfactory mechanical performance. However, samples welded with 0 mm tool offset exhibited slightly superior mechanical properties. Overall, this research highlights the feasibility of using FSP, combined with SiC nanoparticles reinforced filler material and tool offset control, as a promising approach for effective surface crack repair in aluminum alloys, providing a foundation for further process optimization and industrial application.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"12 ","pages":"Article 100340"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2025-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144841611","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-01Epub Date: 2025-06-27DOI: 10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100325
Magdalena Bucior , Rafał Kluz , Andrzej Kubit , Hamed Aghajani Derazkola , Enrico Cestino , Ján Slota
This study investigates the influence of tool trajectory deviations on the load capacity and material flow of friction stir welded (FSW) overlap joints made of EN AW-2024-T3 aluminum alloy. Given that robotic movement is inherently burdened with deviation errors from a theoretically linear trajectory, this study aimed to assess the impact of these deviations on weld quality. Since the FSW-capable robot has low stiffness, a HAAS TM1P milling machine was used to simulate the robot's motion, incorporating recorded deviation errors. The welding process of 1 mm thick sheets was first conducted under ideal rectilinear conditions, establishing optimal parameters: feed rate of 200 mm/min, tool rotational speed of 1517 rpm, and plunge depth of 1.46 mm. Subsequently, controlled trajectory errors with standard deviations ranging from 0.05 mm to 0.2 mm were introduced into the milling machine’s movement to replicate robotic deviation. The results indicate that trajectory deviations with a standard deviation of up to 0.1 mm do not significantly affect the load capacity (increase from 1.01% to 1.95%) but increase dispersion in mechanical performance (2.22% - 2.5%). SEM analysis revealed that when trajectory errors exceeded 0.15 mm, material folding and microcracks appeared, compromising weld integrity. Furthermore, multi-criteria optimization demonstrated that compensating for trajectory deviations is possible by adjusting welding parameters—specifically, reducing the feed rate to increase heat accumulation. This approach enables the production of welds with a minimal decrease in load capacity (1.55% lower than an ideal trajectory weld), mitigating the negative effects of robotic trajectory errors. The use of a feed rate of x2 = 296 mm/min and a rotational speed of x3 = 800 rpm allows for achieving a load capacity of the joints with an average value of 5.36 kN with a standard deviation of σF = 0.07 kN.
{"title":"Friction stir welding tool trajectory error on the load capacity of EN AW-2024-T3 aluminum alloy joints","authors":"Magdalena Bucior , Rafał Kluz , Andrzej Kubit , Hamed Aghajani Derazkola , Enrico Cestino , Ján Slota","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100325","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100325","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study investigates the influence of tool trajectory deviations on the load capacity and material flow of friction stir welded (FSW) overlap joints made of EN AW-2024-T3 aluminum alloy. Given that robotic movement is inherently burdened with deviation errors from a theoretically linear trajectory, this study aimed to assess the impact of these deviations on weld quality. Since the FSW-capable robot has low stiffness, a HAAS TM1P milling machine was used to simulate the robot's motion, incorporating recorded deviation errors. The welding process of 1 mm thick sheets was first conducted under ideal rectilinear conditions, establishing optimal parameters: feed rate of 200 mm/min, tool rotational speed of 1517 rpm, and plunge depth of 1.46 mm. Subsequently, controlled trajectory errors with standard deviations ranging from 0.05 mm to 0.2 mm were introduced into the milling machine’s movement to replicate robotic deviation. The results indicate that trajectory deviations with a standard deviation of up to 0.1 mm do not significantly affect the load capacity (increase from 1.01% to 1.95%) but increase dispersion in mechanical performance (2.22% - 2.5%). SEM analysis revealed that when trajectory errors exceeded 0.15 mm, material folding and microcracks appeared, compromising weld integrity. Furthermore, multi-criteria optimization demonstrated that compensating for trajectory deviations is possible by adjusting welding parameters—specifically, reducing the feed rate to increase heat accumulation. This approach enables the production of welds with a minimal decrease in load capacity (1.55% lower than an ideal trajectory weld), mitigating the negative effects of robotic trajectory errors. The use of a feed rate of <em>x<sub>2</sub></em> = 296 mm/min and a rotational speed of <em>x<sub>3</sub></em> = 800 rpm allows for achieving a load capacity of the joints with an average value of 5.36 kN with a standard deviation of σ<sub>F</sub> = 0.07 kN.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"12 ","pages":"Article 100325"},"PeriodicalIF":3.8,"publicationDate":"2025-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144556740","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-01Epub Date: 2025-09-04DOI: 10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100347
Michael Unger , Sebastian Zehetner , Thomas Klein , Aurel Arnoldt , Martin Schnall
Shielding gases are used in welding technologies to prevent contamination and protect the metallic melt from disadvantageous effects that air could cause on the weld. While argon is mostly used for gas metal arc welding of aluminum, this paper investigates the use of mixtures with traces of different gases. Various properties of the weld seams are assessed: Effects on bead geometry, microstructure, defects, and mechanical characteristics of the resulting material. Investigations were performed for single welds as well as directed energy deposited wire-arc specimens. For this purpose, single bead on plate with CO2, N2, and O2 in the mixture and wall geometry samples with N2 and O2 were manufactured and subsequently analyzed. Nitrogen in the gas mixture is reducing the bead and deposit width and decreasing the grain size compared to the reference sample. This grain size reduction is due to the formation of nitrides in the weld material acting as nucleants for new grains. Nitrides were identified by energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Furthermore, nitrogen is reducing the number of pores but not significantly their volume fraction. A similar effect is reported for used amounts of O2 on smaller scale. The characteristic mechanical strength values are comparable to reported data, but the elongation is reduced when nitrogen is present in the shielding gas mixture.
{"title":"Effect of process gas mixtures on weld material characteristics and bead geometry for wire-arc directed energy deposition","authors":"Michael Unger , Sebastian Zehetner , Thomas Klein , Aurel Arnoldt , Martin Schnall","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100347","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100347","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Shielding gases are used in welding technologies to prevent contamination and protect the metallic melt from disadvantageous effects that air could cause on the weld. While argon is mostly used for gas metal arc welding of aluminum, this paper investigates the use of mixtures with traces of different gases. Various properties of the weld seams are assessed: Effects on bead geometry, microstructure, defects, and mechanical characteristics of the resulting material. Investigations were performed for single welds as well as directed energy deposited wire-arc specimens. For this purpose, single bead on plate with CO<sub>2</sub>, N<sub>2</sub>, and O<sub>2</sub> in the mixture and wall geometry samples with N<sub>2</sub> and O<sub>2</sub> were manufactured and subsequently analyzed. Nitrogen in the gas mixture is reducing the bead and deposit width and decreasing the grain size compared to the reference sample. This grain size reduction is due to the formation of nitrides in the weld material acting as nucleants for new grains. Nitrides were identified by energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Furthermore, nitrogen is reducing the number of pores but not significantly their volume fraction. A similar effect is reported for used amounts of O<sub>2</sub> on smaller scale. The characteristic mechanical strength values are comparable to reported data, but the elongation is reduced when nitrogen is present in the shielding gas mixture.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"12 ","pages":"Article 100347"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2025-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145044702","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-01Epub Date: 2025-08-16DOI: 10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100344
M.H. Khan , S. Jabar , T.I. Khan , H.R. Kotadia , P. Franciosa
Laser beam welding is a critical joining method for wrought 6xxx series aluminium (Al) alloys; however, its broader adoption is hindered by the susceptibility to solidification cracking, which undermines weld integrity and restricts the production of high-quality joints. To mitigate cracking susceptibility, this study explores a novel approach involving the use of alumina (Al2O3) and titanium carbide (TiC) nanoparticles introduced into the fusion zone of laser welded AA6005 aluminium sheets via electrophoretic deposition (CuSO4 bath, ∼40 nm nanoparticles, varying concentrations/times). Microstructural analysis revealed that the incorporation of both Al2O3 and TiC nanoparticles on AA6005 led to an overall 65% grain refinement, effectively preventing centreline cracking during welding. Lap shear testing demonstrated a significant improvement in joint strength, with a 10% increase for Al2O3 coated samples and a 13% increase for TiC coated welds compared to the uncoated material. Notably, TiC outperformed Al2O3 at higher concentrations, exhibiting more uniform dispersion with reduced agglomeration and porosity. In contrast, Al2O3 showed a tendency toward particle clustering and pore formation at elevated concentrations, which limited its strengthening efficiency. This highlights the potential of nanoparticle reinforcement for enhancing the reliability and performance of laser welded 6xxx aluminium alloys.
{"title":"Controlling solidification cracks in laser beam welding of AA6005 using Al2O3 and TiC nanoparticles dispersed in a Cu coating","authors":"M.H. Khan , S. Jabar , T.I. Khan , H.R. Kotadia , P. Franciosa","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100344","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100344","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Laser beam welding is a critical joining method for wrought 6xxx series aluminium (Al) alloys; however, its broader adoption is hindered by the susceptibility to solidification cracking, which undermines weld integrity and restricts the production of high-quality joints. To mitigate cracking susceptibility, this study explores a novel approach involving the use of alumina (Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) and titanium carbide (TiC) nanoparticles introduced into the fusion zone of laser welded AA6005 aluminium sheets via electrophoretic deposition (CuSO<sub>4</sub> bath, ∼40 nm nanoparticles, varying concentrations/times). Microstructural analysis revealed that the incorporation of both Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> and TiC nanoparticles on AA6005 led to an overall 65% grain refinement, effectively preventing centreline cracking during welding. Lap shear testing demonstrated a significant improvement in joint strength, with a 10% increase for Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> coated samples and a 13% increase for TiC coated welds compared to the uncoated material. Notably, TiC outperformed Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> at higher concentrations, exhibiting more uniform dispersion with reduced agglomeration and porosity. In contrast, Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> showed a tendency toward particle clustering and pore formation at elevated concentrations, which limited its strengthening efficiency. This highlights the potential of nanoparticle reinforcement for enhancing the reliability and performance of laser welded 6xxx aluminium alloys.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"12 ","pages":"Article 100344"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2025-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144886019","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-01Epub Date: 2025-09-17DOI: 10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100350
Sathishkumar Duraisamy , Ana Horovistiz , Antonio Bastos , Bernardo Mascate , João M.S. Dias
Copper welding presents significant challenges due to its high thermal conductivity and reflectivity, making traditional welding methods largely ineffective. Electron Beam Welding (EBW) offers a promising solution but requires precise parameter control to achieve optimal results. This study is a systematic review following a structured search of Scopus and Web of Science. After title–abstract–full text screening using predefined inclusion criteria (experimental EBW of copper or copper–dissimilar joints reporting process parameters and weld performance), 163 peer-reviewed articles were retained. For each study, the authors extracted process parameters (accelerating voltage, beam current, welding speed, focus/defocus, beam oscillation), material characteristics (alloy type, thickness, surface preparation), and outcomes (penetration, porosity, microstructure, mechanical properties). Reported statistical measures were consolidated to quantify the dominant influences of the parameters, and a SWOT analysis, along with a research gap analysis, was performed. Research indicates that vacuum-based EBW effectively overcomes copper welding difficulties while producing superior joint quality compared to other fusion processes. EBW achieves deep weld penetrations of up to 30 mm with minimal defects in copper, producing joint strengths of up to 264 MPa, equivalent to approximately 95% of the base material strength. Key welding parameters, including beam current, welding speed, focus position, and oscillation patterns, significantly influence weld quality, with beam current exerting the strongest effect on penetration depth. When joining copper to different materials, careful beam positioning and oscillation techniques successfully control unwanted compound formation while maintaining joint strength. Key findings establish that beam current accounts for 81% of the variance in weld quality control; strategic beam positioning with 0.4–0.5 mm offsets optimizes dissimilar joints, achieving strengths of 250 MPa; oscillation patterns reduce porosity by 30% while controlling intermetallic formation; and significant research gaps remain in copper tube joining applications for thermal management systems. This framework enables precision joining of high-performance copper systems for next-generation energy and electronics applications.
由于铜的高导热性和反射率，传统的焊接方法在很大程度上是无效的，因此铜焊接面临着巨大的挑战。电子束焊接（EBW）提供了一个很有前途的解决方案，但需要精确的参数控制以达到最佳效果。本研究是对Scopus和Web of Science进行结构化搜索后的系统综述。在使用预先定义的纳入标准（铜或铜异种接头的实验EBW报告工艺参数和焊接性能）对标题-摘要-全文进行筛选后，保留了163篇同行评审的文章。对于每项研究，作者提取了工艺参数（加速电压、光束电流、焊接速度、聚焦/离焦、光束振荡）、材料特性（合金类型、厚度、表面处理）和结果（渗透、孔隙度、微观结构、机械性能）。合并报告的统计措施，以量化参数的主导影响，并进行SWOT分析，以及研究差距分析。研究表明，真空电弧焊有效地克服了铜焊接的困难，同时产生的接头质量优于其他熔合工艺。EBW在铜缺陷最小的情况下实现了30毫米的深焊缝穿透，接头强度高达264兆帕，相当于基材强度的约95%。梁电流、焊接速度、焦点位置、振荡模式等关键焊接参数对焊接质量影响显著，其中梁电流对焊深影响最大。当将铜连接到不同的材料时，仔细的梁定位和振荡技术成功地控制了不必要的化合物形成，同时保持了连接强度。主要研究结果包括：焊缝质量控制中81%的变化是由光束电流引起的；偏移量为0.4 ~ 0.5 mm的策略梁定位优化了不同节点，实现了250 MPa的强度；振荡模式在控制金属间形成的同时降低了30%的孔隙度；在热管理系统的铜管连接应用方面仍存在重大的研究空白。该框架能够精确连接下一代能源和电子应用的高性能铜系统。
{"title":"Electron beam welding parameters for copper and dissimilar copper joints: Review, research gaps, and future challenges","authors":"Sathishkumar Duraisamy , Ana Horovistiz , Antonio Bastos , Bernardo Mascate , João M.S. Dias","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100350","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100350","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Copper welding presents significant challenges due to its high thermal conductivity and reflectivity, making traditional welding methods largely ineffective. Electron Beam Welding (EBW) offers a promising solution but requires precise parameter control to achieve optimal results. This study is a systematic review following a structured search of Scopus and Web of Science. After title–abstract–full text screening using predefined inclusion criteria (experimental EBW of copper or copper–dissimilar joints reporting process parameters and weld performance), 163 peer-reviewed articles were retained. For each study, the authors extracted process parameters (accelerating voltage, beam current, welding speed, focus/defocus, beam oscillation), material characteristics (alloy type, thickness, surface preparation), and outcomes (penetration, porosity, microstructure, mechanical properties). Reported statistical measures were consolidated to quantify the dominant influences of the parameters, and a SWOT analysis, along with a research gap analysis, was performed. Research indicates that vacuum-based EBW effectively overcomes copper welding difficulties while producing superior joint quality compared to other fusion processes. EBW achieves deep weld penetrations of up to 30 mm with minimal defects in copper, producing joint strengths of up to 264 MPa, equivalent to approximately 95% of the base material strength. Key welding parameters, including beam current, welding speed, focus position, and oscillation patterns, significantly influence weld quality, with beam current exerting the strongest effect on penetration depth. When joining copper to different materials, careful beam positioning and oscillation techniques successfully control unwanted compound formation while maintaining joint strength. Key findings establish that beam current accounts for 81% of the variance in weld quality control; strategic beam positioning with 0.4–0.5 mm offsets optimizes dissimilar joints, achieving strengths of 250 MPa; oscillation patterns reduce porosity by 30% while controlling intermetallic formation; and significant research gaps remain in copper tube joining applications for thermal management systems. This framework enables precision joining of high-performance copper systems for next-generation energy and electronics applications.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"12 ","pages":"Article 100350"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2025-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145108666","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-01Epub Date: 2025-11-25DOI: 10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100362
Sergio R. Soria , Florencia Malamud , Markus Strobl , Leonardo N. Tufaro , Hernán G. Svoboda
Friction Stir Lap Welding (FSLW) is a technique used to join dissimilar materials, such as aluminium alloys and steel sheets, applied in the automotive industry. The residual strain distribution generated during the process, strongly affects the mechanical performance and long-term durability of the welded components. In this study, the residual strains generated during FSLW of aluminium alloy and steel sheets were investigated using Bragg edge neutron imaging (BEI). Different combinations of thin aluminium alloy and steel sheets with thicknesses between 0.8 mm and 2 mm were analysed. 5052 and 5182 alloys, in combination with AISI 1010 carbon steel and dual phase (DP) 1000 steel were employed. Additionally, the evolution of the actual strain under lap shear tests was monitored. The presence of the steel inclusions was detected by neutron transmission imaging. The BEI results showed tensile residual strain along the longitudinal direction in the steel sheets after the welding process, in all cases displaying a M-shaped strain field. During the lap shear tests, a reduction of the actual tensile strains was observed due to the lateral contraction produced in the mechanical testing.
{"title":"Residual strain and strain evolution of dissimilar aluminium-steel friction stir lap welding during lap shear tests","authors":"Sergio R. Soria , Florencia Malamud , Markus Strobl , Leonardo N. Tufaro , Hernán G. Svoboda","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100362","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100362","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Friction Stir Lap Welding (FSLW) is a technique used to join dissimilar materials, such as aluminium alloys and steel sheets, applied in the automotive industry. The residual strain distribution generated during the process, strongly affects the mechanical performance and long-term durability of the welded components. In this study, the residual strains generated during FSLW of aluminium alloy and steel sheets were investigated using Bragg edge neutron imaging (BEI). Different combinations of thin aluminium alloy and steel sheets with thicknesses between 0.8 mm and 2 mm were analysed. 5052 and 5182 alloys, in combination with AISI 1010 carbon steel and dual phase (DP) 1000 steel were employed. Additionally, the evolution of the actual strain under lap shear tests was monitored. The presence of the steel inclusions was detected by neutron transmission imaging. The BEI results showed tensile residual strain along the longitudinal direction in the steel sheets after the welding process, in all cases displaying a M-shaped strain field. During the lap shear tests, a reduction of the actual tensile strains was observed due to the lateral contraction produced in the mechanical testing.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"12 ","pages":"Article 100362"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2025-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145614594","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Rotary friction welding can be performed using either continuous drive friction welding (CDFW) or inertia friction welding (IFW), which utilizes stored energy in a flywheel. Historically, these methods have distinct applications and geographic preferences: IFW is prevalent in the US, especially for superalloys, while CDFW is more common in Europe, focusing on automotive materials like steel and aluminum. This study presents a comparative analysis of both welding techniques using the same friction welding machine to minimize external variables. The free-machining steel AISI 1215, chosen for its banded microstructure, serves as the specimen material. The comparison is based on the same energetic input of 82.8 kJ to ensure consistency. However, IFW experienced significant losses due to internal friction, which further decelerated the spindle and reduced the effective weld energy to 68 kJ. Key findings include differences in deformation behavior and weld formation efficiency. CDFW exhibits a softer deformation, with principal shortening occurring during the forge phase due to axial force, resulting in large equiaxed inclusions in the weld zone. Additionally, less upset is generated with the same calculated energy input. In contrast, IFW demonstrates sharper deformation, with main shortening in the friction phase, achieving greater total upset. The combination of axial force and torque produces a spiralized material flow and finely dispersed inclusions due to high shear forces. These insights highlight the distinct advantages and characteristics of each welding technique, providing valuable information for their respective applications.
{"title":"Comparative study of inertia and continuous drive friction welding processes based on equivalent energy input","authors":"Carina Vauderwange , Dirk Lindenau , Heinz Palkowski , Hadi Mozaffari Jovein","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100337","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100337","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Rotary friction welding can be performed using either continuous drive friction welding (CDFW) or inertia friction welding (IFW), which utilizes stored energy in a flywheel. Historically, these methods have distinct applications and geographic preferences: IFW is prevalent in the US, especially for superalloys, while CDFW is more common in Europe, focusing on automotive materials like steel and aluminum. This study presents a comparative analysis of both welding techniques using the same friction welding machine to minimize external variables. The free-machining steel AISI 1215, chosen for its banded microstructure, serves as the specimen material. The comparison is based on the same energetic input of 82.8 kJ to ensure consistency. However, IFW experienced significant losses due to internal friction, which further decelerated the spindle and reduced the effective weld energy to 68 kJ. Key findings include differences in deformation behavior and weld formation efficiency. CDFW exhibits a softer deformation, with principal shortening occurring during the forge phase due to axial force, resulting in large equiaxed inclusions in the weld zone. Additionally, less upset is generated with the same calculated energy input. In contrast, IFW demonstrates sharper deformation, with main shortening in the friction phase, achieving greater total upset. The combination of axial force and torque produces a spiralized material flow and finely dispersed inclusions due to high shear forces. These insights highlight the distinct advantages and characteristics of each welding technique, providing valuable information for their respective applications.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"12 ","pages":"Article 100337"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2025-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144750365","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-01Epub Date: 2025-07-25DOI: 10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100332
Alex Jordan , Lucas Hermelingmeier , Julian Gilich , Gerson Meschut , Marco De Santis , Alexander Schlüter
In light of growing demands for resource efficiency and sustainability in vehicle engineering, the environmentally compatible separation of structural adhesive joints is gaining increasing relevance. This study presents a comparative analysis of two physically based debonding methods: the established hot-air process and a cryogenic cold process based on liquid nitrogen (LN2). The primary objective is to assess the ecological impact and process-related sustainability of both approaches.
Experimental investigations were conducted on a component-representative triple-sheet structure that simulates common automotive flange joints. Thermal input was applied either by convective heating using a hot air gun or by direct cooling through a contact-based LN2 tool. The resulting temperature profiles were recorded using spatially distributed thermocouples. Subsequently, the outer panel was selectively debonded to replicate a repair scenario, and the mechanical integrity of the remaining adhesive joint was evaluated through Mode I testing of l-shaped specimens. Process data served as input for an Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) according to DIN EN ISO 14,040.
The cryogenic method achieved a 40 % reduction in carbon footprint compared to the hot-air process (0.337 kg vs. 0.559 kg CO2-equivalents), primarily due to its shorter process time and more efficient heat transfer. While the hot-air method’s impact is mainly driven by electrical energy use, that of the cold method stems from cryogenic media consumption. Notwithstanding certain disadvantages in specific impact categories, the LN2-based process exhibits a superior overall ecological performance and signifies a promising solution for repair- and recycling-oriented adhesive separation in structural vehicle applications.
随着汽车工程对资源效率和可持续性的要求越来越高，结构粘接接头的环境兼容分离越来越重要。本研究对比分析了两种基于物理的脱粘方法：已建立的热空气法和基于液氮（LN2）的低温冷法。主要目标是评估这两种方法的生态影响和与过程有关的可持续性。以具有代表性的三板结构为研究对象，模拟了常见的汽车法兰连接。热输入可以通过热风枪对流加热，也可以通过接触式LN2工具直接冷却。利用空间分布的热电偶记录得到的温度分布。随后，有选择地剥离外面板以复制修复场景，并通过l形试件的I型测试评估剩余粘合接头的机械完整性。根据DIN EN ISO 14040，过程数据作为生命周期评估（LCA）的输入。与热空气法相比，深冷法的碳足迹减少了40% （0.337 kg对0.559 kg二氧化碳当量），这主要是由于其更短的工艺时间和更有效的传热。热空气法的影响主要是由电能的使用驱动的，而冷法的影响则源于低温介质的消耗。尽管在特定的影响类别中存在一定的缺点，但基于ln2的工艺表现出优越的整体生态性能，并标志着结构车辆应用中以修复和回收为导向的粘合剂分离的有希望的解决方案。
{"title":"Comparison of the economic efficiency and sustainability of two debonding processes for structurally bonded sills","authors":"Alex Jordan , Lucas Hermelingmeier , Julian Gilich , Gerson Meschut , Marco De Santis , Alexander Schlüter","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100332","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100332","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In light of growing demands for resource efficiency and sustainability in vehicle engineering, the environmentally compatible separation of structural adhesive joints is gaining increasing relevance. This study presents a comparative analysis of two physically based debonding methods: the established hot-air process and a cryogenic cold process based on liquid nitrogen (LN<sub>2</sub>). The primary objective is to assess the ecological impact and process-related sustainability of both approaches.</div><div>Experimental investigations were conducted on a component-representative triple-sheet structure that simulates common automotive flange joints. Thermal input was applied either by convective heating using a hot air gun or by direct cooling through a contact-based LN<sub>2</sub> tool. The resulting temperature profiles were recorded using spatially distributed thermocouples. Subsequently, the outer panel was selectively debonded to replicate a repair scenario, and the mechanical integrity of the remaining adhesive joint was evaluated through Mode I testing of l-shaped specimens. Process data served as input for an Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) according to DIN EN ISO 14,040.</div><div>The cryogenic method achieved a 40 % reduction in carbon footprint compared to the hot-air process (0.337 kg vs. 0.559 kg CO<sub>2</sub>-equivalents), primarily due to its shorter process time and more efficient heat transfer. While the hot-air method’s impact is mainly driven by electrical energy use, that of the cold method stems from cryogenic media consumption. Notwithstanding certain disadvantages in specific impact categories, the LN<sub>2</sub>-based process exhibits a superior overall ecological performance and signifies a promising solution for repair- and recycling-oriented adhesive separation in structural vehicle applications.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"12 ","pages":"Article 100332"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2025-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144750366","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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