Pub Date : 2025-12-01DOI: 10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100346
Fadi Al-Badour , Ahmad H. Bawagnih , Ahmed Ali , Rami K. Suleiman , Necar Merah
{"title":"Corrigendum to “Surface cracks repair in AA6061-T6 aluminum alloys using friction stir processing” [Journal of Advanced Joining Processes (2025) /100340]","authors":"Fadi Al-Badour , Ahmad H. Bawagnih , Ahmed Ali , Rami K. Suleiman , Necar Merah","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100346","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100346","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"12 ","pages":"Article 100346"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2025-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145733068","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-01DOI: 10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100362
Sergio R. Soria , Florencia Malamud , Markus Strobl , Leonardo N. Tufaro , Hernán G. Svoboda
Friction Stir Lap Welding (FSLW) is a technique used to join dissimilar materials, such as aluminium alloys and steel sheets, applied in the automotive industry. The residual strain distribution generated during the process, strongly affects the mechanical performance and long-term durability of the welded components. In this study, the residual strains generated during FSLW of aluminium alloy and steel sheets were investigated using Bragg edge neutron imaging (BEI). Different combinations of thin aluminium alloy and steel sheets with thicknesses between 0.8 mm and 2 mm were analysed. 5052 and 5182 alloys, in combination with AISI 1010 carbon steel and dual phase (DP) 1000 steel were employed. Additionally, the evolution of the actual strain under lap shear tests was monitored. The presence of the steel inclusions was detected by neutron transmission imaging. The BEI results showed tensile residual strain along the longitudinal direction in the steel sheets after the welding process, in all cases displaying a M-shaped strain field. During the lap shear tests, a reduction of the actual tensile strains was observed due to the lateral contraction produced in the mechanical testing.
{"title":"Residual strain and strain evolution of dissimilar aluminium-steel friction stir lap welding during lap shear tests","authors":"Sergio R. Soria , Florencia Malamud , Markus Strobl , Leonardo N. Tufaro , Hernán G. Svoboda","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100362","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100362","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Friction Stir Lap Welding (FSLW) is a technique used to join dissimilar materials, such as aluminium alloys and steel sheets, applied in the automotive industry. The residual strain distribution generated during the process, strongly affects the mechanical performance and long-term durability of the welded components. In this study, the residual strains generated during FSLW of aluminium alloy and steel sheets were investigated using Bragg edge neutron imaging (BEI). Different combinations of thin aluminium alloy and steel sheets with thicknesses between 0.8 mm and 2 mm were analysed. 5052 and 5182 alloys, in combination with AISI 1010 carbon steel and dual phase (DP) 1000 steel were employed. Additionally, the evolution of the actual strain under lap shear tests was monitored. The presence of the steel inclusions was detected by neutron transmission imaging. The BEI results showed tensile residual strain along the longitudinal direction in the steel sheets after the welding process, in all cases displaying a M-shaped strain field. During the lap shear tests, a reduction of the actual tensile strains was observed due to the lateral contraction produced in the mechanical testing.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"12 ","pages":"Article 100362"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2025-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145614594","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-12-01DOI: 10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100363
Dominik Walz, Stefan Weihe, Martin Werz
High-strength, age-hardenable aluminum alloys in car body construction challenge conventional joining methods — especially in mixed-material body structures, as fusion welding is prone to hot cracking and to hydrogen porosity. As a solid-state process, friction stir welding circumvents these challenges and typically produces joints with a higher strength than fusion welding, particularly in high-strength aluminum alloys. While friction stir spot welding guns are commercially available, the joints produced with them exhibit significantly lower strength compared to linear welds. To address this issue, a friction stir welding gun capable of producing short stitch welds was developed for a possible application in car body manufacturing.
This work investigates friction stitch welds in AA6016-T4 sheet overlap joints and quantifies how the stitch length influences static strength, fatigue performance, hardness, and microstructure, compared to a continuous friction stir welded (FSW) joint. Short stitch welds obtained the highest lap-shear strength, achieving up to 83% joint efficiency, while longer welds reached between 65% and 68%. Metallography confirmed overlap-specific features, such as cold-lap imperfections in the weld, and showed that tool reentry can locally fragment the oxide line and diminish cold-lap severity, improving static strength. The fatigue performance of the stitch welds was lower than that of the strongest static condition, with short stitches particularly susceptible to notch effects due to overlap-specific features and reentry-related porosity. In general, intersecting stitch welds can surpass continuous FSW in static strength, but fatigue optimization will require mitigating the severity of the cold lap and reentry imperfections, for example, through adapted tool and pin designs.
{"title":"Investigation of the weld characteristics of AA6016-T4 friction stitch welds in overlap configuration and the influence of stitch length on static and fatigue strength","authors":"Dominik Walz, Stefan Weihe, Martin Werz","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100363","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100363","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>High-strength, age-hardenable aluminum alloys in car body construction challenge conventional joining methods — especially in mixed-material body structures, as fusion welding is prone to hot cracking and to hydrogen porosity. As a solid-state process, friction stir welding circumvents these challenges and typically produces joints with a higher strength than fusion welding, particularly in high-strength aluminum alloys. While friction stir spot welding guns are commercially available, the joints produced with them exhibit significantly lower strength compared to linear welds. To address this issue, a friction stir welding gun capable of producing short stitch welds was developed for a possible application in car body manufacturing.</div><div>This work investigates friction stitch welds in AA6016-T4 sheet overlap joints and quantifies how the stitch length influences static strength, fatigue performance, hardness, and microstructure, compared to a continuous friction stir welded (FSW) joint. Short stitch welds obtained the highest lap-shear strength, achieving up to 83% joint efficiency, while longer welds reached between 65% and 68%. Metallography confirmed overlap-specific features, such as cold-lap imperfections in the weld, and showed that tool reentry can locally fragment the oxide line and diminish cold-lap severity, improving static strength. The fatigue performance of the stitch welds was lower than that of the strongest static condition, with short stitches particularly susceptible to notch effects due to overlap-specific features and reentry-related porosity. In general, intersecting stitch welds can surpass continuous FSW in static strength, but fatigue optimization will require mitigating the severity of the cold lap and reentry imperfections, for example, through adapted tool and pin designs.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"12 ","pages":"Article 100363"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2025-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145614593","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
To accurately simulate rotary friction welding (RFW), calibration of the material model and friction conditions is essential. This study focuses on developing a material model and simulation for RFW of AISI 1215 free-machining steel in the environment “virtua RFW”. Inertia (IFW) and continuous drive friction welding (CDFW) were physically performed with comparable energy inputs to calibrate the simulation. The aim of this study is to examine the calibration procedure in detail and subsequently perform a simulation-based process comparison of IFW and CDFW. For calibration, four material and friction factors were varied in an L16 Taguchi array. Different methods for evaluating simulation quality were assessed. Upset deviation and flash angle α measurement via image processing were determined to be the most suitable methods for evaluating the alignment between simulation and real welds. Optimal simulation parameters were identified for IFW, closely matching experimental results. Due to the velocity and pressure dependence of the friction behavior, a direct transfer of parameters to CDFW was not possible, requiring adjustments and regression analysis for accurate prediction. Optimized simulations showed differences in the thermomechanical behavior: IFW exhibited a steeper temperature gradient with a minimum cooling time t8/5 of 2.5 s and a double-wedge shape in the affected zone, while CDFW showed a broader, more uniform zone with a minimum cooling time t8/5 of 3 s. These findings improve the understanding of IFW and CDFW and provide calibrated simulation models that could facilitate more efficient process development.
{"title":"Modeling and simulation of inertia and continuous drive friction welding of AISI 1215 steel","authors":"Carina Vauderwange , Dirk Lindenau , Heinz Palkowski , Hadi Mozaffari Jovein","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100360","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100360","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>To accurately simulate rotary friction welding (RFW), calibration of the material model and friction conditions is essential. This study focuses on developing a material model and simulation for RFW of AISI 1215 free-machining steel in the environment “virtua RFW”. Inertia (IFW) and continuous drive friction welding (CDFW) were physically performed with comparable energy inputs to calibrate the simulation. The aim of this study is to examine the calibration procedure in detail and subsequently perform a simulation-based process comparison of IFW and CDFW. For calibration, four material and friction factors were varied in an L16 Taguchi array. Different methods for evaluating simulation quality were assessed. Upset deviation and flash angle α measurement via image processing were determined to be the most suitable methods for evaluating the alignment between simulation and real welds. Optimal simulation parameters were identified for IFW, closely matching experimental results. Due to the velocity and pressure dependence of the friction behavior, a direct transfer of parameters to CDFW was not possible, requiring adjustments and regression analysis for accurate prediction. Optimized simulations showed differences in the thermomechanical behavior: IFW exhibited a steeper temperature gradient with a minimum cooling time t8/5 of 2.5 s and a double-wedge shape in the affected zone, while CDFW showed a broader, more uniform zone with a minimum cooling time t8/5 of 3 s. These findings improve the understanding of IFW and CDFW and provide calibrated simulation models that could facilitate more efficient process development.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"12 ","pages":"Article 100360"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2025-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145681468","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-11-29DOI: 10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100366
Johannes Wahl , Christian Frey , John Powell , Michael Haas , Simon Olschok , Uwe Reisgen , Christian Hagenlocher , Thomas Graf
During deep-penetration laser welding, a hot vapor plume is emitted from the keyhole which, on cooling, condenses into a particle cloud that surrounds the weld zone. This vapor plume and associated particle cloud interact with the incident laser beam through scattering, absorption, and phase front distortion, dynamically altering the beam caustic and potentially affecting weld quality. In this study, the mechanisms governing the beam-plume interaction are investigated by observation of the thermal emission and scattered laser light from the interaction zone during the welding of stainless steel, aluminum, and copper. For this analysis, a spectrometer and a high-speed camera equipped with optical filters were used. The results revealed significant material-specific differences in thermal emission and scattered laser light from the plume, indicating variations in absorption and scattering behavior and thus beam attenuation. Re-heating of plume material until evaporation took place for all three materials. Stainless steel exhibited the strongest thermal emission, while aluminum and copper showed significantly weaker emission. In contrast, the aluminum plume displayed the highest level of laser light scattering. This is attributed to the presence of liquid and solid particles rather than purely vaporized material, even close to the laser beam focus. Distinct interaction zones within the laser beam caustic were identified, each corresponding to specific aggregate states and characteristic laser-plume interactions. For stainless steel and copper, a zone forms close to the keyhole which is primarily composed of vaporized material. Beyond this there is a multi-phase zone containing both vapor and liquid or solid matter. Further from the keyhole, a particle zone with no detectable vapor appears as re-heating becomes insufficient for evaporation. In aluminum, no distinct vapor zone was detected. Instead, strong scattering near the keyhole indicates the presence of particles even at high laser intensities. Thus, only a multi-phase and a particle zone appear to form for aluminum under the welding parameters used.
{"title":"Material-specific beam-plume interactions during deep-penetration laser welding of stainless steel, aluminum, and copper","authors":"Johannes Wahl , Christian Frey , John Powell , Michael Haas , Simon Olschok , Uwe Reisgen , Christian Hagenlocher , Thomas Graf","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100366","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100366","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>During deep-penetration laser welding, a hot vapor plume is emitted from the keyhole which, on cooling, condenses into a particle cloud that surrounds the weld zone. This vapor plume and associated particle cloud interact with the incident laser beam through scattering, absorption, and phase front distortion, dynamically altering the beam caustic and potentially affecting weld quality. In this study, the mechanisms governing the beam-plume interaction are investigated by observation of the thermal emission and scattered laser light from the interaction zone during the welding of stainless steel, aluminum, and copper. For this analysis, a spectrometer and a high-speed camera equipped with optical filters were used. The results revealed significant material-specific differences in thermal emission and scattered laser light from the plume, indicating variations in absorption and scattering behavior and thus beam attenuation. Re-heating of plume material until evaporation took place for all three materials. Stainless steel exhibited the strongest thermal emission, while aluminum and copper showed significantly weaker emission. In contrast, the aluminum plume displayed the highest level of laser light scattering. This is attributed to the presence of liquid and solid particles rather than purely vaporized material, even close to the laser beam focus. Distinct interaction zones within the laser beam caustic were identified, each corresponding to specific aggregate states and characteristic laser-plume interactions. For stainless steel and copper, a zone forms close to the keyhole which is primarily composed of vaporized material. Beyond this there is a multi-phase zone containing both vapor and liquid or solid matter. Further from the keyhole, a particle zone with no detectable vapor appears as re-heating becomes insufficient for evaporation. In aluminum, no distinct vapor zone was detected. Instead, strong scattering near the keyhole indicates the presence of particles even at high laser intensities. Thus, only a multi-phase and a particle zone appear to form for aluminum under the welding parameters used.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"13 ","pages":"Article 100366"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2025-11-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145665318","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-11-28DOI: 10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100361
Dirk Dittrich , Dirk Lehmhus , Marco Haesche , Leonardo Fernandes Gomes , Christoph Pille , Axel Jahn , Linda Ullmann , Charlotte Graner
Sustainability is becoming increasingly important in vehicle production. The e-mobility transition has shifted the CO2 footprint from use to production phase, where secondary aluminum alloys in structural castings are known to offer significant CO2 reduction potential. However, accumulation of copper, iron, manganese and zinc and the hydrogen content in the melt pose major challenges for casting and subsequent joining processes. In laser welding, dynamic modulation of intensity distributions in the weld pool can overcome the latter issue. In experimental studies covering high pressure die-cast AlSi10MnMg alloys with secondary material content levels ranging from 0 wt.-% and 58 wt.-% to 89 wt.-%, castability and weldability were investigated and the structural and mechanical properties of the joint determined. The results contribute to the optimization of sustainable car body production, providing a path towards cost-effective differential lightweight design solutions as economically, technologically and ecologically competitive alternatives to large-scale casting technologies (GigaCasting).
{"title":"Influence of secondary aluminum content on casting and weldability of high pressure die cast materials for sustainable automotive body concepts","authors":"Dirk Dittrich , Dirk Lehmhus , Marco Haesche , Leonardo Fernandes Gomes , Christoph Pille , Axel Jahn , Linda Ullmann , Charlotte Graner","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100361","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100361","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Sustainability is becoming increasingly important in vehicle production. The e-mobility transition has shifted the CO<sub>2</sub> footprint from use to production phase, where secondary aluminum alloys in structural castings are known to offer significant CO<sub>2</sub> reduction potential. However, accumulation of copper, iron, manganese and zinc and the hydrogen content in the melt pose major challenges for casting and subsequent joining processes. In laser welding, dynamic modulation of intensity distributions in the weld pool can overcome the latter issue. In experimental studies covering high pressure die-cast AlSi10MnMg alloys with secondary material content levels ranging from 0 wt.-% and 58 wt.-% to 89 wt.-%, castability and weldability were investigated and the structural and mechanical properties of the joint determined. The results contribute to the optimization of sustainable car body production, providing a path towards cost-effective differential lightweight design solutions as economically, technologically and ecologically competitive alternatives to large-scale casting technologies (GigaCasting).</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"13 ","pages":"Article 100361"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2025-11-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145738200","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-11-10DOI: 10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100359
Johannes Günther , Robert Prowaznik , Daniel Krug , Simon Jahn , Thomas Niendorf , Thomas Wegener
Hand-held laser beam welding (HLBW) has gained attention due to its flexibility, high welding speeds, and excellent joint appearance. Since research on this technique remains limited, the present study provides first insights into HLBW of S700MC high-strength low-alloy steel. Radiographic analysis reveals that joints with a low degree of porosity can be achieved, addressing a major challenge of manual welding. Mechanical characterization by hardness, V-notch impact, and tensile testing demonstrates good performance of the welded structure. The welded joint exhibits a yield strength of 686 MPa and a tensile strength of 778 MPa compared to 775 MPa and 840 MPa of the base material, respectively. Hardness measurements show a reduction from 280 HV0.5 in the base material to ≤ 240 HV0.5 in the fine-grained heat-affected zone, consistent with the observed strength decrease and within the limits of the ER100S-G filler wire. Despite a reduction in fracture elongation from 20 % to ≈ 10 %, the absorbed impact energy reaches 36.5 J, exceeding the value of 30 J being characteristic for the base material, indicating sufficient ductility. Microstructural analysis reveals distinct cementite-free upper and granular bainite, acicular and polygonal ferrite as well as various morphologies of martensite-austenite constituents in the fusion zone and at given distances to the fusion line. A cooling time t8/5 ≈ 6 s was determined, to eventually enable quantitative process–microstructure–property correlation. Overall, the study confirms that HLBW enables the production of mechanically sound welds in S700MC, eventually allowing for robust application of this emerging technology for joining of high-strength thermo-mechanical processed mildsteel.
{"title":"Microstructure and mechanical properties of hand-held laser beam welded S700MC high-strength steel","authors":"Johannes Günther , Robert Prowaznik , Daniel Krug , Simon Jahn , Thomas Niendorf , Thomas Wegener","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100359","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100359","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Hand-held laser beam welding (HLBW) has gained attention due to its flexibility, high welding speeds, and excellent joint appearance. Since research on this technique remains limited, the present study provides first insights into HLBW of S700MC high-strength low-alloy steel. Radiographic analysis reveals that joints with a low degree of porosity can be achieved, addressing a major challenge of manual welding. Mechanical characterization by hardness, V-notch impact, and tensile testing demonstrates good performance of the welded structure. The welded joint exhibits a yield strength of 686 MPa and a tensile strength of 778 MPa compared to 775 MPa and 840 MPa of the base material, respectively. Hardness measurements show a reduction from 280 HV0.5 in the base material to ≤ 240 HV0.5 in the fine-grained heat-affected zone, consistent with the observed strength decrease and within the limits of the ER100S-G filler wire. Despite a reduction in fracture elongation from 20 % to ≈ 10 %, the absorbed impact energy reaches 36.5 J, exceeding the value of 30 J being characteristic for the base material, indicating sufficient ductility. Microstructural analysis reveals distinct cementite-free upper and granular bainite, acicular and polygonal ferrite as well as various morphologies of martensite-austenite constituents in the fusion zone and at given distances to the fusion line. A cooling time t<sub>8/</sub><sub>5</sub> ≈ 6 s was determined, to eventually enable quantitative process–microstructure–property correlation. Overall, the study confirms that HLBW enables the production of mechanically sound welds in S700MC, eventually allowing for robust application of this emerging technology for joining of high-strength thermo-mechanical processed mildsteel.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"12 ","pages":"Article 100359"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2025-11-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145568213","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-11-08DOI: 10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100358
Seonghyun Kim , Hyun-Uk Jun , Jooyong Cheon , Gyuheun Lee , Changwook Ji , Yang-Do Kim
This study evaluated the effects of beam control in adjustable ring mode laser-arc hybrid welding on the microstructure, porosity, and mechanical properties of a 5-mm-thick AA6N01-T5 Al alloy. Three laser-beam conditions—ring-beam hybrid welding (RBHW), center-beam hybrid welding (CBHW), and dual-beam hybrid welding (DBHW)—were compared under similar heat input conditions. The factors with the most significant influence on the mechanical properties in the welding of the AA6N01-T5 Al alloy are the porosity, grain size, and presence of strengthening precipitates. The weld porosity was quantified via high-resolution X-ray three-dimensional computed tomography, the grain structure was characterized via electron backscatter diffraction, the distribution and content of Mg—a key element in precipitation strengthening—were examined via electron probe microanalysis, and tensile and microhardness tests were performed in compliance with ASTM standards. RBHW achieved the lowest porosity (0.77 %) and the highest elongation (8.7 %) owing to the stable keyhole geometry and enhanced molten-pool convection. DBHW exhibited the smallest equiaxed grain size (179.43 μm) and the lowest Mg loss (0.89 wt%), resulting in the highest tensile (178.9 MPa) and yield (121.8 MPa) strengths. CBHW exhibited a combination of high porosity, coarse grains, and severe Mg loss, which degraded the mechanical performance of the weld. These findings clarify that the laser-beam energy distribution influences the molten-pool behavior, microstructure, and mechanical properties of the weld, thereby affecting the performance and reliability of high-strength Al alloy welds in lightweight manufacturing applications.
{"title":"Effects of adjustable ring mode laser-beam control on microstructure and mechanical properties of AA6N01-T5 aluminum alloy in laser-arc hybrid welding","authors":"Seonghyun Kim , Hyun-Uk Jun , Jooyong Cheon , Gyuheun Lee , Changwook Ji , Yang-Do Kim","doi":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100358","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100358","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study evaluated the effects of beam control in adjustable ring mode laser-arc hybrid welding on the microstructure, porosity, and mechanical properties of a 5-mm-thick AA6N01-T5 Al alloy. Three laser-beam conditions—ring-beam hybrid welding (RBHW), center-beam hybrid welding (CBHW), and dual-beam hybrid welding (DBHW)—were compared under similar heat input conditions. The factors with the most significant influence on the mechanical properties in the welding of the AA6N01-T5 Al alloy are the porosity, grain size, and presence of strengthening precipitates. The weld porosity was quantified via high-resolution X-ray three-dimensional computed tomography, the grain structure was characterized via electron backscatter diffraction, the distribution and content of Mg—a key element in precipitation strengthening—were examined via electron probe microanalysis, and tensile and microhardness tests were performed in compliance with ASTM <span><span>standards</span><svg><path></path></svg></span>. RBHW achieved the lowest porosity (0.77 %) and the highest elongation (8.7 %) owing to the stable keyhole geometry and enhanced molten-pool convection. DBHW exhibited the smallest equiaxed grain size (179.43 μm) and the lowest Mg loss (0.89 wt%), resulting in the highest tensile (178.9 MPa) and yield (121.8 MPa) strengths. CBHW exhibited a combination of high porosity, coarse grains, and severe Mg loss, which degraded the mechanical performance of the weld. These findings clarify that the laser-beam energy distribution influences the molten-pool behavior, microstructure, and mechanical properties of the weld, thereby affecting the performance and reliability of high-strength Al alloy welds in lightweight manufacturing applications.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":34313,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Advanced Joining Processes","volume":"12 ","pages":"Article 100358"},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2025-11-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145519439","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2025-11-08DOI: 10.1016/j.jajp.2025.100355
Robin Göbel, Maximilian Keppler, Stefan Weihe, Martin Werz
Friction stir welding (FSW) enables high-strength joints between dissimilar materials such as aluminum and steel and is particularly suited for hybrid tailor welded blanks in deep drawing. A special joining configuration, developed at the Material Testing Institute in Stuttgart, allows joining a high-strength aluminum alloy to thinner steel in a combined butt and overlap joint. Despite its proven advantages, this welding process shows inconsistent outcomes regarding formability and joint strength. This research examines the influence of tool material on weld quality and process robustness. H13 steel, ceramics (SiN and SiAlON) and TiAlN-coated tungsten carbide tools were evaluated in welds joining 1 mm steel to 2 mm aluminum sheets. Material accumulation was quantified by 3D scanning and continuous weighing. Weld seam integrity was assessed by X-ray imaging, metallography and tensile testing with regard to aluminum-steel intermixing. The findings show that during friction stir welding of aluminum and steel in a combined butt and overlap joint, both steel and ceramic tools predominantly degrade through the adhesion of workpiece material. The H13 tool exhibits steel/aluminum buildup detaching after 1.5-2.5 m, altering geometry and intermixing. Fluctuations in material accretion lead to varying process conditions over successive welds or even within one weld. By contrast, the TiAlN-coated WC tool exhibits significantly less buildup and therefore more uniform weld seam quality. Moreover, a relatively high degree of aluminum-steel intermixing consistently correlates with superior weld strength and formability. The study highlights how tool degradation and intermixing affect weld quality and emphasizes the role of tool materials for robust industrial applications.
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