Pub Date : 2021-06-01DOI: 10.3362/1755-1986.21-00004
T. Bernasky, Ashrafun Nahar Misti, Tika Dahal
COVID-19 has surfaced many of the inequities to which people with disabilities have always been vulnerable. Moreover, women with disabilities face even greater risks than their male counterparts. The current article highlights the economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on women with disabilities in Bangladesh and Nepal from the vantage point of two organizations working directly with women with disabilities in these countries. What is clear is that governments need to take further steps to address this crisis while also implementing programmes and services that promote economic security for women with disabilities and their families. The work done by organizations of women with disabilities is critical for documenting the daily impacts of the pandemic and helping to mitigate its negative effects.
{"title":"Field perspectives on the economic impacts of COVID-19 on women with disabilities in Bangladesh and Nepal","authors":"T. Bernasky, Ashrafun Nahar Misti, Tika Dahal","doi":"10.3362/1755-1986.21-00004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3362/1755-1986.21-00004","url":null,"abstract":"COVID-19 has surfaced many of the inequities to which people with disabilities have always been vulnerable. Moreover, women with disabilities face even greater risks than their male counterparts. The current article highlights the economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on women with disabilities in Bangladesh and Nepal from the vantage point of two organizations working directly with women with disabilities in these countries. What is clear is that governments need to take further steps to address this crisis while also implementing programmes and services that promote economic security for women with disabilities and their families. The work done by organizations of women with disabilities is critical for documenting the daily impacts of the pandemic and helping to mitigate its negative effects.","PeriodicalId":39025,"journal":{"name":"Enterprise Development and Microfinance","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"41724979","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-06-01DOI: 10.3362/1755-1986.21-00018
M. Berg, Giulia Debernardini, Aneese Lelijveld
This paper presents a model for how the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on economic output in developing countries can be assessed with a new approach. Existing models lack sectoral granularity in developing countries, which can, however, be obtained through input-output modelling by changing the social accounting matrix to simulate a COVID-19 economy. Results have been estimated for 65 sectors and 141 regions which correspond to the Global Trade Analysis Project’s data. The analyses showed that the average impact in Africa and Asia on industry output is −2.6 per cent and −2.9 per cent, respectively. It is estimated that tourism and services are the most heavily impacted sectors, between −15 per cent and −19 per cent for hospitality, recreation, and other service activities, and between −4 per cent and −7 per cent for transport services. The model is a first attempt at estimating impact at this level of granularity per country and sector, which by triangulation with empirical data can be used to make substantiated management or policy decisions.
{"title":"COVID-19 impact study: assessing the consequences of the pandemic on economic output in developing countries for targeted sectors","authors":"M. Berg, Giulia Debernardini, Aneese Lelijveld","doi":"10.3362/1755-1986.21-00018","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3362/1755-1986.21-00018","url":null,"abstract":"This paper presents a model for how the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on economic output in developing countries can be assessed with a new approach. Existing models lack sectoral granularity in developing countries, which can, however, be obtained through input-output modelling by changing the social accounting matrix to simulate a COVID-19 economy. Results have been estimated for 65 sectors and 141 regions which correspond to the Global Trade Analysis Project’s data. The analyses showed that the average impact in Africa and Asia on industry output is −2.6 per cent and −2.9 per cent, respectively. It is estimated that tourism and services are the most heavily impacted sectors, between −15 per cent and −19 per cent for hospitality, recreation, and other service activities, and between −4 per cent and −7 per cent for transport services. The model is a first attempt at estimating impact at this level of granularity per country and sector, which by triangulation with empirical data can be used to make substantiated management or policy decisions.","PeriodicalId":39025,"journal":{"name":"Enterprise Development and Microfinance","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"47778964","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-06-01DOI: 10.3362/1755-1986.21-00005
Rupsha Banerjee, A. Cullis, F. Flintan, S. Wiggins
Somalia has a significant place in the livestock sector in the Horn of Africa; livestock trade and export is one of the key economic contributors. Most of the livestock trade happens with the Middle East, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia being one of its biggest importers. The COVID-19 pandemic has led to both massive loss of life and huge economic losses as the result of measures to contain the virus. In June 2020, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia took the decision to restrict the number of pilgrims for the annual Hajj. Impacts resulted in a decline in income from the seasonal Hajj of 80 per cent, though domestically prices of livestock remained stable and local markets were used for livestock sales. This paper, besides highlighting the effects, provides recommendations which could inform strategic planning, humanitarian aid, and resilience building for the livestock value chain in Somalia and the Horn of Africa.
{"title":"Impact of COVID-19 on livestock exports from Somalia and the Horn of Africa","authors":"Rupsha Banerjee, A. Cullis, F. Flintan, S. Wiggins","doi":"10.3362/1755-1986.21-00005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3362/1755-1986.21-00005","url":null,"abstract":"Somalia has a significant place in the livestock sector in the Horn of Africa; livestock trade and export is one of the key economic contributors. Most of the livestock trade happens with the Middle East, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia being one of its biggest importers. The COVID-19 pandemic has led to both massive loss of life and huge economic losses as the result of measures to contain the virus. In June 2020, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia took the decision to restrict the number of pilgrims for the annual Hajj. Impacts resulted in a decline in income from the seasonal Hajj of 80 per cent, though domestically prices of livestock remained stable and local markets were used for livestock sales. This paper, besides highlighting the effects, provides recommendations which could inform strategic planning, humanitarian aid, and resilience building for the livestock value chain in Somalia and the Horn of Africa.","PeriodicalId":39025,"journal":{"name":"Enterprise Development and Microfinance","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46461582","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-06-01DOI: 10.3362/1755-1986.21-00009
A. Khursheed, Faisal Mustafa, A. A. Khan
The COVID-19 pandemic has not only created significant havoc in the world but has also opened doors to new opportunities for women entrepreneurs. The objective of this study is to examine case studies of women entrepreneurs to determine how they have taken advantage of the circumstances offered by COVID-19 to expand their businesses. To gain deeper insights about lived experiences of women entrepreneurs, the study uses semi-structured interviews to identify the strategies women entrepreneurs have adopted during times of social and economic upheaval. The findings indicate that women entrepreneurs responded to this crisis by accessing finance and using their innovative and creative skills to leverage e-commerce, often in the face of economic hardship. This study aims to contribute to policymakers’ and practitioners’ development of appropriate response strategies that focus on strengthening women entrepreneurs in Pakistan.
{"title":"Turning the COVID-19 crisis into entrepreneurial success: an exploratory study on women innovators of Pakistan","authors":"A. Khursheed, Faisal Mustafa, A. A. Khan","doi":"10.3362/1755-1986.21-00009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3362/1755-1986.21-00009","url":null,"abstract":"The COVID-19 pandemic has not only created significant havoc in the world but has also opened doors to new opportunities for women entrepreneurs. The objective of this study is to examine case studies of women entrepreneurs to determine how they have taken advantage of the circumstances offered by COVID-19 to expand their businesses. To gain deeper insights about lived experiences of women entrepreneurs, the study uses semi-structured interviews to identify the strategies women entrepreneurs have adopted during times of social and economic upheaval. The findings indicate that women entrepreneurs responded to this crisis by accessing finance and using their innovative and creative skills to leverage e-commerce, often in the face of economic hardship. This study aims to contribute to policymakers’ and practitioners’ development of appropriate response strategies that focus on strengthening women entrepreneurs in Pakistan.","PeriodicalId":39025,"journal":{"name":"Enterprise Development and Microfinance","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2021-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"47888298","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-12-01DOI: 10.3362/1755-1986.20-00009
Rachel E. Gordon
This paper identifies key factors that explain why some borrowers access credit from microfinance institutions earlier in their lives for productive purposes than other borrowers. Productive credit usage facilitates these youth borrowers to break free from the poverty cycle and increase their initial endowment levels. Examining the differences between borrowers, the results indicate that youths borrowing for investment purposes have higher levels of all types of education. These youth borrowers are more likely able to break a consumption-only borrowing cycle to improve livelihoods. The findings suggest and promote future policy improvements for youth borrowers that intersect education with microlending.
{"title":"Youth borrowers improving themselves through endowment loans","authors":"Rachel E. Gordon","doi":"10.3362/1755-1986.20-00009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3362/1755-1986.20-00009","url":null,"abstract":"This paper identifies key factors that explain why some borrowers access credit from microfinance institutions earlier in their lives for productive purposes than other borrowers. Productive credit usage facilitates these youth borrowers to break free from the poverty cycle and increase their initial endowment levels. Examining the differences between borrowers, the results indicate that youths borrowing for investment purposes have higher levels of all types of education. These youth borrowers are more likely able to break a consumption-only borrowing cycle to improve livelihoods. The findings suggest and promote future policy improvements for youth borrowers that intersect education with microlending.","PeriodicalId":39025,"journal":{"name":"Enterprise Development and Microfinance","volume":"31 1","pages":"254-267"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43595234","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-12-01DOI: 10.3362/1755-1986.20-00008
M. Kodom, C. Ackah, W. Steel, G. Bokpin
Mobile money adoption is gradually bridging the financial inclusion gap in access to financial services between higher- vs. lower-income populations in many developing countries, including Ghana. However, levels of adoption differ within and between countries. Using a nationally representative survey sample of 5,220, this paper examines the determinants of mobile money adoption and use in Ghana and explores how they vary across demographic groups. The probit estimation showed perceived usefulness and social influence as drivers of adoption, while transaction costs inhibit adoption to varying degrees across demographic groups. The major challenges users faced were network failures and high service charges. Measures to enhance mobile network connectivity and liaise with service providers to reduce the service charges would boost adoption and financial inclusion.
{"title":"Drivers of mobile financial inclusion in Ghana","authors":"M. Kodom, C. Ackah, W. Steel, G. Bokpin","doi":"10.3362/1755-1986.20-00008","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3362/1755-1986.20-00008","url":null,"abstract":"Mobile money adoption is gradually bridging the financial inclusion gap in access to financial services between higher- vs. lower-income populations in many developing countries, including Ghana. However, levels of adoption differ within and between countries. Using a nationally representative survey sample of 5,220, this paper examines the determinants of mobile money adoption and use in Ghana and explores how they vary across demographic groups. The probit estimation showed perceived usefulness and social influence as drivers of adoption, while transaction costs inhibit adoption to varying degrees across demographic groups. The major challenges users faced were network failures and high service charges. Measures to enhance mobile network connectivity and liaise with service providers to reduce the service charges would boost adoption and financial inclusion.","PeriodicalId":39025,"journal":{"name":"Enterprise Development and Microfinance","volume":"31 1","pages":"226-253"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"49531135","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-12-01DOI: 10.3362/1755-1986.20-00013
Hilman Palaon, S. Wiryono, Taufik Faturohman
Digitizing social assistance for the poor has been proven to increase financial inclusion. The Indonesian Government initiated reform for non-cash social assistance disbursement in 2016. Evidence-based policy approach is an effective technique for informing the government on appropriate new regulations. A pilot project involving 4,295 participants was conducted to evaluate the following payment systems: debit card, mobile money, QR code (quick response), and NFC (near field communication). Beneficiaries utilized the funds for cash withdrawals and food purchases at bank agents. Quantitative and qualitative methods were employed in the analysis. The government decided to use debit card with multiple wallet features. A new regulation was made to support the implementation in 2017, and by the end of 2019, the government provided more than 12 million new savings accounts to the poor. Potential future improvements are proposed for the sustainability of the solution, which include a disbursement providers’ revenue model, broader financial services involvement, bank agents’ inventory system, and optimizing the latest innovations.
{"title":"Boosting financial inclusion through social assistance reform: evidence-based approach in selecting a payment system","authors":"Hilman Palaon, S. Wiryono, Taufik Faturohman","doi":"10.3362/1755-1986.20-00013","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3362/1755-1986.20-00013","url":null,"abstract":"Digitizing social assistance for the poor has been proven to increase financial inclusion. The Indonesian Government initiated reform for non-cash social assistance disbursement in 2016. Evidence-based policy approach is an effective technique for informing the government on appropriate new regulations. A pilot project involving 4,295 participants was conducted to evaluate the following payment systems: debit card, mobile money, QR code (quick response), and NFC (near field communication). Beneficiaries utilized the funds for cash withdrawals and food purchases at bank agents. Quantitative and qualitative methods were employed in the analysis. The government decided to use debit card with multiple wallet features. A new regulation was made to support the implementation in 2017, and by the end of 2019, the government provided more than 12 million new savings accounts to the poor. Potential future improvements are proposed for the sustainability of the solution, which include a disbursement providers’ revenue model, broader financial services involvement, bank agents’ inventory system, and optimizing the latest innovations.","PeriodicalId":39025,"journal":{"name":"Enterprise Development and Microfinance","volume":"31 1","pages":"284-299"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"42275413","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-09-01DOI: 10.3362/1755-1986.20-00004
E. Ishengoma
This paper examines the relationship between the economic wellbeing of microfinance cooperatives’ (MFCs) clients and financial linkage intensity, moderated by multiple linkages and linkage duration. It applies regression models on data from 575 clients of 20 MFCs which were involved in financial linkages with formal financial institutions (FFIs). Findings revealed that the MFCs clients’ income is positively associated with linkage intensity. However, multiple linkages and linkage duration weakened the association between linkage intensity and MFCs clients’ income. This could be an outcome of high costs of maintaining multiple linkages, unfavourable conditions and terms of loans from multiple FFIs as well as high costs of lock-in among MFCs with a long-term relationship with FFIs. The costs trickle down to MFCs clients and worsen their economic wellbeing. MFCs need to avoid borrowing from multiple FFIs at the same time and linkage duration which may lock them in. They should also use their long-term relationship with FFIs to bargain for better terms.
{"title":"Financial linkages and economic wellbeing: the case of microfinance cooperatives in Tanzania","authors":"E. Ishengoma","doi":"10.3362/1755-1986.20-00004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3362/1755-1986.20-00004","url":null,"abstract":"This paper examines the relationship between the economic wellbeing of microfinance cooperatives’ (MFCs) clients and financial linkage intensity, moderated by multiple linkages and linkage duration. It applies regression models on data from 575 clients of 20 MFCs which were involved in financial linkages with formal financial institutions (FFIs). Findings revealed that the MFCs clients’ income is positively associated with linkage intensity. However, multiple linkages and linkage duration weakened the association between linkage intensity and MFCs clients’ income. This could be an outcome of high costs of maintaining multiple linkages, unfavourable conditions and terms of loans from multiple FFIs as well as high costs of lock-in among MFCs with a long-term relationship with FFIs. The costs trickle down to MFCs clients and worsen their economic wellbeing. MFCs need to avoid borrowing from multiple FFIs at the same time and linkage duration which may lock them in. They should also use their long-term relationship with FFIs to bargain for better terms.","PeriodicalId":39025,"journal":{"name":"Enterprise Development and Microfinance","volume":"31 1","pages":"144-163"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"42937591","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-09-01DOI: 10.3362/1755-1986.20-00010
Malena Portal, Duniesky Feitó, Martin Arturo
Microfinance institutions (MFIs) constitute a support mechanism for microenterprises in Mexico by designing programmes that are accessible to this type of business. This article makes a comparative analysis of the financing programmes granted by MFIs and commercial banking and in turn, determines the impact of these supports on the results of the microenterprises. By applying non-parametric statistics, the results reveal that MFIs offer loans with smaller amounts, shorter terms, periodic payments, and higher interest rates compared with commercial banking products. Also, it was found that microenterprises that obtained financing from MFIs achieved lower profits than those that acquired resources from commercial banking.
{"title":"MFIs’ programmes in support of microenterprises in Mexico: a comparative analysis with commercial banking","authors":"Malena Portal, Duniesky Feitó, Martin Arturo","doi":"10.3362/1755-1986.20-00010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3362/1755-1986.20-00010","url":null,"abstract":"Microfinance institutions (MFIs) constitute a support mechanism for microenterprises in Mexico by designing programmes that are accessible to this type of business. This article makes a comparative analysis of the financing programmes granted by MFIs and commercial banking and in turn, determines the impact of these supports on the results of the microenterprises. By applying non-parametric statistics, the results reveal that MFIs offer loans with smaller amounts, shorter terms, periodic payments, and higher interest rates compared with commercial banking products. Also, it was found that microenterprises that obtained financing from MFIs achieved lower profits than those that acquired resources from commercial banking.","PeriodicalId":39025,"journal":{"name":"Enterprise Development and Microfinance","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69467225","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-06-01DOI: 10.3362/1755-1986.19.00013
Douglas Laher, Dennis Proffitt
Agency theory plays an important role in explaining the behaviour of managers of microfinance institutions (MFIs). These managers face the same problem of simultaneously satisfying conflicting goals as the managers of for-profit companies. In the case of MFIs, a fundamental conflict occurs as management attempts to balance the organization’s social mission against the organization’s need for financial viability. Our paper investigates this issue. We first develop the goal conflict issue as an agency issue. We then develop quantitative measures of financial stress, wealth of borrowers, and the number of loans in the MFI’s loan portfolio. We use OLS regression to measure the relationship between these variables. The resulting regression equation is highly significant, and the variables in the equation all possess the sign predicted by agency theory.
{"title":"Conflicting goals in the management of microfinance institutions: an agency theory approach","authors":"Douglas Laher, Dennis Proffitt","doi":"10.3362/1755-1986.19.00013","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3362/1755-1986.19.00013","url":null,"abstract":"Agency theory plays an important role in explaining the behaviour of managers of microfinance institutions (MFIs). These managers face the same problem of simultaneously satisfying conflicting goals as the managers of for-profit companies. In the case of MFIs, a fundamental conflict occurs as management attempts to balance the organization’s social mission against the organization’s need for financial viability. Our paper investigates this issue. We first develop the goal conflict issue as an agency issue. We then develop quantitative measures of financial stress, wealth of borrowers, and the number of loans in the MFI’s loan portfolio. We use OLS regression to measure the relationship between these variables. The resulting regression equation is highly significant, and the variables in the equation all possess the sign predicted by agency theory.","PeriodicalId":39025,"journal":{"name":"Enterprise Development and Microfinance","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2020-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44298761","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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