Pub Date : 2023-01-02DOI: 10.1080/00094633.2023.2188048
Guolong Lai, Q. Wang
Beginning in northern India in the fifth century BCE and gradually making its way to China through the Silk Roads via Central Asia in the first century CE, Buddhism had a wide-ranging and significant impact on the advancement of Chinese culture. So much so that during the first half of the twentieth century, Hu Shi 胡適 (1891–1962), arguably the most illustrious scholar in modern China, coined the term “Indianization” to describe Buddhism’s profound influence in shaping the culture of China over the previous two millennia. “Indeed, nowhere in the world,” Hu proclaimed, “with the only possible exception of the Christianization of Europe, can one find another source of historical materials equal in extent and in length of time.” Moreover, according to him, the extent to which Buddhism influenced Chinese culture extended beyond the religious realm. Indeed, “It [Buddhism] continued to Indianize China long after it had ceased to be a vital and powerful religion in China,” Hu emphasized. In other words, Buddhism eventually evolved into a complex historical force that influenced the development of Chinese culture, despite initially drawing many Chinese as a novel religious belief. The Indianization of China, if we want to borrow Hu Shi’s wisdom again, went through four phases: mass borrowing, resistance and persecution, domestication, and appropriation. There is not enough room here to go into the specifics of Hu’s four phases of analysis. Suffice it to say that Buddhism had a wide-ranging impact because its teachings were infused with Chinese native philosophical, literary, and religious traditions, resulting in a localization of Buddhism that transformed it from its Indian roots into a native Chinese faith. When foreign Buddhist missionaries from India and Central Asia arrived in China in the mid-second century CE and began translating Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, the development of Chinese Buddhist literature began. Initially, the Chinese had little understanding of Buddhism, and its religious icon and practice were frequently mixed with Daoist or other indigenous religious practices. After the fourth and fifth centuries, Buddhist monks, such as Kum arajīva (fl. 385–409 CE), who had more advanced knowledge of Buddhist teachings and Indic languages, produced more accurate and elegant translations, replacing the previous ones, and had a profound impact on both the content and form of Chinese literature. In addition to translation, Chinese monks wrote their own treatises on philosophical problems, commentaries on translated scriptures, historiography and hagiography, poetry, and popular narrative. Some of these writings were intentionally or mistakenly attributed to Indian authors and labeled by Buddhist scholars as “scriptures of doubtful authenticity” (疑經 yijing) or “spurious scriptures” (偽經 weijing). The existence of and debates over apocrypha inspired Chinese monks to embark on a perilous journey to India in search of “true” scriptures and bring
{"title":"Buddhist literature in Chinese history—Editors’ introduction","authors":"Guolong Lai, Q. Wang","doi":"10.1080/00094633.2023.2188048","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/00094633.2023.2188048","url":null,"abstract":"Beginning in northern India in the fifth century BCE and gradually making its way to China through the Silk Roads via Central Asia in the first century CE, Buddhism had a wide-ranging and significant impact on the advancement of Chinese culture. So much so that during the first half of the twentieth century, Hu Shi 胡適 (1891–1962), arguably the most illustrious scholar in modern China, coined the term “Indianization” to describe Buddhism’s profound influence in shaping the culture of China over the previous two millennia. “Indeed, nowhere in the world,” Hu proclaimed, “with the only possible exception of the Christianization of Europe, can one find another source of historical materials equal in extent and in length of time.” Moreover, according to him, the extent to which Buddhism influenced Chinese culture extended beyond the religious realm. Indeed, “It [Buddhism] continued to Indianize China long after it had ceased to be a vital and powerful religion in China,” Hu emphasized. In other words, Buddhism eventually evolved into a complex historical force that influenced the development of Chinese culture, despite initially drawing many Chinese as a novel religious belief. The Indianization of China, if we want to borrow Hu Shi’s wisdom again, went through four phases: mass borrowing, resistance and persecution, domestication, and appropriation. There is not enough room here to go into the specifics of Hu’s four phases of analysis. Suffice it to say that Buddhism had a wide-ranging impact because its teachings were infused with Chinese native philosophical, literary, and religious traditions, resulting in a localization of Buddhism that transformed it from its Indian roots into a native Chinese faith. When foreign Buddhist missionaries from India and Central Asia arrived in China in the mid-second century CE and began translating Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, the development of Chinese Buddhist literature began. Initially, the Chinese had little understanding of Buddhism, and its religious icon and practice were frequently mixed with Daoist or other indigenous religious practices. After the fourth and fifth centuries, Buddhist monks, such as Kum arajīva (fl. 385–409 CE), who had more advanced knowledge of Buddhist teachings and Indic languages, produced more accurate and elegant translations, replacing the previous ones, and had a profound impact on both the content and form of Chinese literature. In addition to translation, Chinese monks wrote their own treatises on philosophical problems, commentaries on translated scriptures, historiography and hagiography, poetry, and popular narrative. Some of these writings were intentionally or mistakenly attributed to Indian authors and labeled by Buddhist scholars as “scriptures of doubtful authenticity” (疑經 yijing) or “spurious scriptures” (偽經 weijing). The existence of and debates over apocrypha inspired Chinese monks to embark on a perilous journey to India in search of “true” scriptures and bring ","PeriodicalId":41331,"journal":{"name":"CHINESE STUDIES IN HISTORY","volume":"56 1","pages":"1 - 4"},"PeriodicalIF":0.1,"publicationDate":"2023-01-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"47861718","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-01-01DOI: 10.4236/chnstd.2023.122013
Liwen Liu
{"title":"A Potential Solution to Chinese Students’ Unintelligible English Accent: A Study of the Effectiveness of a Stress Placement Intervention to Improve Chinese English Speakers’ Lexical Pronunciation","authors":"Liwen Liu","doi":"10.4236/chnstd.2023.122013","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4236/chnstd.2023.122013","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":41331,"journal":{"name":"CHINESE STUDIES IN HISTORY","volume":"9 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.1,"publicationDate":"2023-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"83544904","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-01-01DOI: 10.4236/chnstd.2023.123017
Yike Zheng
{"title":"Reconciliation and Conflict: A Study on the Development Path of Unmovable Surface Cultural Relics Protection in Beijing","authors":"Yike Zheng","doi":"10.4236/chnstd.2023.123017","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4236/chnstd.2023.123017","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":41331,"journal":{"name":"CHINESE STUDIES IN HISTORY","volume":"213 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.1,"publicationDate":"2023-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"76947044","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-01-01DOI: 10.4236/chnstd.2023.121005
Xiaoxiao Li
{"title":"The Synergistic Development of People’s Mediation and Commercial Mediation in China","authors":"Xiaoxiao Li","doi":"10.4236/chnstd.2023.121005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4236/chnstd.2023.121005","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":41331,"journal":{"name":"CHINESE STUDIES IN HISTORY","volume":"7 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.1,"publicationDate":"2023-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"89317661","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-01-01DOI: 10.51198/chinesest2023.01.113
О. Є. Федічев
{"title":"СТРУКТУРНО-СЕМАНТИЧНІ ТА ПРАГМАТИЧНІ АСПЕКТИ ПРОМОВИ ПРОФЕСІЙНОГО ДИПЛОМАТА У СУЧАСНОМУ КИТАЙСЬКОМОВНОМУ ДИПЛОМАТИЧНОМУ ДИСКУРСІ","authors":"О. Є. Федічев","doi":"10.51198/chinesest2023.01.113","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.51198/chinesest2023.01.113","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":41331,"journal":{"name":"CHINESE STUDIES IN HISTORY","volume":"27 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.1,"publicationDate":"2023-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"75888327","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-01-01DOI: 10.4236/chnstd.2023.124019
Zhiguo Zhang, Kejin Chen
Currently, in the compulsory enforcement procedures of China, restricting high consumption of the legal representative of the enforced company is a double-edged sword. On the one hand, it is effective in realizing the applicant’s true interests. On the other hand, however, it is of theoretical inconsistencies between the measures restricting high consumption of legal representative and the theory of limited liability of company; specifically, in the cases to end the enforcement procedure, the consumption restriction measures imposing on the legal representative has already lost their deterrent effect, and if continuing to restrict the right of the legal representative, it will not only be harmful to the “recovery” and “regeneration” of the economic ability of the legal person subject to enforcement, but also will cause certain negative social effects. Therefore, based on relevant theoretical research and cases study, this thesis points out that it is necessary to amend the framework of the measure system of restricting high consumption of the legal representatives and to construct a “limited application” mechanism in order to restore the institutional purpose of the restricting measures and maximize the institutional function of them.
{"title":"On the Application of Measures to Restrict High Consumption of Legal Representatives in China","authors":"Zhiguo Zhang, Kejin Chen","doi":"10.4236/chnstd.2023.124019","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4236/chnstd.2023.124019","url":null,"abstract":"Currently, in the compulsory enforcement procedures of China, restricting high consumption of the legal representative of the enforced company is a double-edged sword. On the one hand, it is effective in realizing the applicant’s true interests. On the other hand, however, it is of theoretical inconsistencies between the measures restricting high consumption of legal representative and the theory of limited liability of company; specifically, in the cases to end the enforcement procedure, the consumption restriction measures imposing on the legal representative has already lost their deterrent effect, and if continuing to restrict the right of the legal representative, it will not only be harmful to the “recovery” and “regeneration” of the economic ability of the legal person subject to enforcement, but also will cause certain negative social effects. Therefore, based on relevant theoretical research and cases study, this thesis points out that it is necessary to amend the framework of the measure system of restricting high consumption of the legal representatives and to construct a “limited application” mechanism in order to restore the institutional purpose of the restricting measures and maximize the institutional function of them.","PeriodicalId":41331,"journal":{"name":"CHINESE STUDIES IN HISTORY","volume":"32 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135799309","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-01-01DOI: 10.51198/chinesest2023.01.080
Н. В. Кобзей
{"title":"ТВОРЧІСТЬ ВОЛОДИМИРА ВИННИЧЕНКА І ЛУ СІНЯ: ПРОБЛЕМИ ГЕНЕТИКО-ТИПОЛОГІЧНОЇ СПОРІДНЕНОСТІ","authors":"Н. В. Кобзей","doi":"10.51198/chinesest2023.01.080","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.51198/chinesest2023.01.080","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":41331,"journal":{"name":"CHINESE STUDIES IN HISTORY","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.1,"publicationDate":"2023-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"88345065","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-01-01DOI: 10.51198/chinesest2023.02.019
K. Stetsiuk
The People’s Republic of China is in a state of transition from the first tier of emerging space actors to developed ones. The country represents a unique case, reaching the same “firsts” but at a faster pace, making a shift from a reactive to a proactive space policy, from being one of the space followers to turning into one of the space leaders. China has published five White Papers on space activities over the past 23 years: in 2000, 2006, 2011, 2016, and 2022. They provide a concise overview of China’s key achievements in this field and its strategic goals for the next five years. The aim of this comparative analysis is to track the evolutionary processes that took place in the Chinese space policy narrative from 2000 to 2022. The White Papers are compared according to the following five criteria: 1) aims and principles; 2) progress made in space technology, applications, and science; 3) development concepts; 4) international cooperation guidelines; and 5) major bilateral, multilateral, and commercial events in space collaboration. Such core elements of space technology as the space transportation system, space infrastructure, manned spaceflight, and deep space exploration are considered with a focus on China’s achievements in these areas. This paper attempts to construct a holistic picture of China’s space policies based on a critical analysis of the five White Papers. The crucial features that make Chinese space narrative especially progressive, appealing, and captivating are defined. Attention is paid to the essential elements that are of special interest in the field of international relations and foreign politics. The role of Ukraine in bilateral space cooperation is mentioned.
{"title":"CHINESE SPACE POLICY NARRATIVE IN 2000–2022: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF FIVE WHITE PAPERS ON SPACE","authors":"K. Stetsiuk","doi":"10.51198/chinesest2023.02.019","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.51198/chinesest2023.02.019","url":null,"abstract":"The People’s Republic of China is in a state of transition from the first tier of emerging space actors to developed ones. The country represents a unique case, reaching the same “firsts” but at a faster pace, making a shift from a reactive to a proactive space policy, from being one of the space followers to turning into one of the space leaders. China has published five White Papers on space activities over the past 23 years: in 2000, 2006, 2011, 2016, and 2022. They provide a concise overview of China’s key achievements in this field and its strategic goals for the next five years. The aim of this comparative analysis is to track the evolutionary processes that took place in the Chinese space policy narrative from 2000 to 2022. The White Papers are compared according to the following five criteria: 1) aims and principles; 2) progress made in space technology, applications, and science; 3) development concepts; 4) international cooperation guidelines; and 5) major bilateral, multilateral, and commercial events in space collaboration. Such core elements of space technology as the space transportation system, space infrastructure, manned spaceflight, and deep space exploration are considered with a focus on China’s achievements in these areas. This paper attempts to construct a holistic picture of China’s space policies based on a critical analysis of the five White Papers. The crucial features that make Chinese space narrative especially progressive, appealing, and captivating are defined. Attention is paid to the essential elements that are of special interest in the field of international relations and foreign politics. The role of Ukraine in bilateral space cooperation is mentioned.","PeriodicalId":41331,"journal":{"name":"CHINESE STUDIES IN HISTORY","volume":"32 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135750169","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-01-01DOI: 10.51198/chinesest2023.02.052
P. Shevchenko
This article is the second part on the issue of China’s Grand Strategy. It reveals the dramatic shift in the country’s grand strategy under Xi Jinping’s leadership, namely from 2017. Now it’s crucial to move away from the obsolete understanding of China. Beijing’s consideration comes through the lens of Chinese own geostrategic clash with the USA over global leadership, launched by China after 1990. Despite increased cooperation with the USA during Deng Xiaoping rule, Beijing perceived America as the competitor. Especially after the USSR collapse, US-encouraged efforts to “liberalize” China in 1989 and Gulf War in the Middle East, which convinced Beijing of the American determination to sustain its hegemony by hard force. Chinese Grand Strategy has its goals, tools – political, economic, military means, and three main phases: blunting, building, expansion. All of them are in detail scrutinized in this paper. Against the background of the Russo-Ukrainian war, Beijing continues to maintain a “neutral” stance and promotes its own vision of ceasefire. China is interested in the end of the war, but it is vital for Beijing if Russo-Ukrainian confrontation result will lead to the strengthening of Russia-China asymmetrical strategic partnership, development of Beijingled regional alliances in Eurasia, and increase of Chinese global influence.
{"title":"CHINESE GRAND STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION AFTER 1990: GOALS, TOOLS, PHASES","authors":"P. Shevchenko","doi":"10.51198/chinesest2023.02.052","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.51198/chinesest2023.02.052","url":null,"abstract":"This article is the second part on the issue of China’s Grand Strategy. It reveals the dramatic shift in the country’s grand strategy under Xi Jinping’s leadership, namely from 2017. Now it’s crucial to move away from the obsolete understanding of China. Beijing’s consideration comes through the lens of Chinese own geostrategic clash with the USA over global leadership, launched by China after 1990. Despite increased cooperation with the USA during Deng Xiaoping rule, Beijing perceived America as the competitor. Especially after the USSR collapse, US-encouraged efforts to “liberalize” China in 1989 and Gulf War in the Middle East, which convinced Beijing of the American determination to sustain its hegemony by hard force. Chinese Grand Strategy has its goals, tools – political, economic, military means, and three main phases: blunting, building, expansion. All of them are in detail scrutinized in this paper. Against the background of the Russo-Ukrainian war, Beijing continues to maintain a “neutral” stance and promotes its own vision of ceasefire. China is interested in the end of the war, but it is vital for Beijing if Russo-Ukrainian confrontation result will lead to the strengthening of Russia-China asymmetrical strategic partnership, development of Beijingled regional alliances in Eurasia, and increase of Chinese global influence.","PeriodicalId":41331,"journal":{"name":"CHINESE STUDIES IN HISTORY","volume":"6 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"135750545","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-01-01DOI: 10.4236/chnstd.2023.122010
Yü-wen Wu
{"title":"Embedded Fusion: The Certainty of Blockchain Technology Complements the High Degree of Probability of Legal Presumption","authors":"Yü-wen Wu","doi":"10.4236/chnstd.2023.122010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4236/chnstd.2023.122010","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":41331,"journal":{"name":"CHINESE STUDIES IN HISTORY","volume":"5 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":0.1,"publicationDate":"2023-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"79787906","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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