Pub Date : 2020-07-30DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198857938.003.0003
Andrew Kahn
This chapter examines a set of four poems, written between 1921 and 1924, that combine a certain abstraction of language with visceral violence. Mandelstam develops a set of techniques for his lyric poetry that will permanently enrich his poetics in exploring new themes such as guilt and violence; in another poem he creates an emblem to represent generational warfare, combining the highly pictorial and the abstract, and reflecting on questions of whether the ends justify the means; in a third, Mandelstam uses allegory and emblems to represent, in his own way, the analogy between the French Revolution and the Terror widespread in early Bolshevik culture, interrogating the historiography to see whether the past is of any use in predicting the future. In a eulogy to Lenin, the question of Russia’s direction remains acutely open-ended.
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Pub Date : 2020-07-30DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198857938.003.0009
Andrew Kahn
In the early 1930s, Mandelstam wrote a set of short poems about objects. These lyrics, read here from the perspective of modern thing-theory as well as early Soviet writings on ‘the thing’, occasion meditations on questions of aesthetics: What is the difference between a thing and an object? How much work should the viewer be expected to do to recover the original intention of the craftsman? Does social utility spoil beauty? These questions impinge on the value of found things like stones used by Mandelstam as metaphors for the kind of beautiful object that might look found rather than made, that is, anonymous and formally perfect. Should texts be written this way? Would that solve the problem of uncontrollable thought? The chapter concludes with a discussion of lyrics that, as pure poems, seek to operate according to an independent musical language. Can they remain aloof from the world and poetic biography?
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This chapter observes that references to the eye and parts of the eye (eyelashes, iris, pupil, sclera, retina, and socket) are pervasive in Mandelstam’s prose and poetry. These references intensify around 1931, at a time when his poems establish a visual dialectic between representations of art (cinema, painting, objects) and also make use of images from Soviet life, adding what W.J.T. Mitchell calls ‘iconotexts’ to the emblems or ideograms seen in the poems of the early 1920s. A close reading of a famous passage from the travel piece Journey to Armenia unravels from its references to French painters and theorists the background behind Mandelstam’s terminology and his preoccupation with the physiological sensitivity of the eye. The Russian art scene was strongly influenced by French neo-Impressionist painting, in both theory and practice, and Mandelstam’s references condense a cultural moment of great prominence and influence. The chapter moves on to poems that aim to transpose onto a verbal canvas some of the lessons of these schools of painting, opening up new worlds governed by rules of art rather than rules of ideology at a time when the Soviet state was imposing canons of representation.
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Pub Date : 2020-07-30DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198857938.003.0002
Andrew Kahn
It has been an article of faith in Mandelstam studies that he conceived an early antagonism for Soviet life and became an outcast. This chapter surveys the political language of journalism and poetry from 1918 until the collision with Stalin in 1934. Combining literary analysis, biography, and a forensic survey of his publishing record, it analyses his ideological positions. The profile of the writer in this revisionist account is of commitment to cultural revolution and professional involvement. In the late 1920s as the Proletarian movement and class warfare became entrenched, he sought to establish his credentials as a writer ‘made’ by the revolution, courting controversy at the end of New Economic Policy with views on state-sponsored translation as a tool of progress. His defence of expertise as the right means to enlighten cut across political trends, leading to a clash with fellow writers and Stalin.
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Pub Date : 2020-07-30DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198857938.003.0004
Andrew Kahn
The focus of this chapter is the ‘Slate Ode’ (1922). Widely regarded as one of the greatest poems in Russian, it has been read primarily as a subtextual palimpsest. The reading given in this chapter embeds the poem in a set of overlapping contexts, tracing the poem’s utopian language to the value systems of utopian socialist thought in which Mandelstam was steeped; situating it in the context of the Russian reception of Nietzsche, a key thinker for many Russian revolutionaries whose vision in the Genealogy of Morals of a new morality Mandelstam’s poem enacts; exploring its link to New Economic Policy discussion of the primitive economy and natural communism mirrored in the poem, as well as its connection to other thought systems such as mythical ideas of return and a vision of society that replicates the morality of early Christians. Psychological division marks the voice of the speaker who in these new conditions interrogates the sources of poetry and the poet’s own authority. Far from assuming that he can speak with the vatic certainty of the poet-lawgiver of the nineteenth-century Romantic tradition, the first-person speaker delves into the language of the unconscious and Orphic tradition.
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Pub Date : 2020-07-30DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198857938.003.0013
Andrew Kahn
From early 1937, attacks on Mandelstam appeared in the local Voronezh press. The story of adapting to exile and escape from his political plight connects the poems of the notebooks. The chapter examines how the works written in that year explore the various prospects for survival, haunted by the example of homelessness of Schubert’s Winterreise. These experiences drive Mandelstam to consider whether the extensive reach of Stalin can ever be evaded, plotting whether flight might lead to freedom. The remaining possibility might be to surrender politically and submit to Stalin, seeking pardon. The book circles back to Mandelstam’s relation to the revolution by examining his late poem, the ‘Stalin Ode’, one of the most controversial poems in the Russian language, read here as a work of ironic defiance that manipulates panegyric subversively and closes off any possibility of rapprochement. Mandelstam’s final lyrics imagine flight into invisible realms.
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Pub Date : 2020-07-30DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198857938.003.0010
A. Kahn
Mandelstam’s love poetry is built out of a dialectical tension between sexual desire and repudiation of the body, expressed by sublimating eroticism into either intimate feeling or rapture that transports the lover into ‘a country beyond the eye-lashes’. Poems written in the mid-1920s stage scenes in which feeling escalates from attraction via flirtation to carnal desire, and then to a transcendent vision involving self-sacrifice and Liebestod. The male figure in a number of these poems moves from a sexually passive posture to sexual desire that is more overt, but also dressed up in theatrical role playing, and the ideal of the sexless male is posited, as is an ideal of devotion including Caritas. The stylistic range of the poems places them among Mandelstam’s most enchanting and challenging. He was always capable of poetic difficulty, and these poems present enigmas whose interpretation folds in earlier discoveries such as the use of the emblem and the figure of Chaplin, and expands our sense of the parallel developments of the worldly and unworldly writer.
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Pub Date : 2020-07-30DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198857938.003.0005
Andrew Kahn
The chapter considers Mandelstam’s 1932 ‘Verses on Russian Poetry’ as an act of engagement with Soviet critical debates on poetry and ideology, and on the nature of the poetic canon. The cycle has been deemed to illustrate Mandelstam at his most hermetic and even backward-looking, read as poems that put up a verbal screen. In fact, it is highly topical and draws heavily on contemporary newspaper material about literary groups and reviews of his own work. A new, productive method of reading such difficult texts is proposed here by showing how closely the cycle assimilates its horizon of expectation, using the language of parable, allegory, visual emblem, and political quotation. Flowing out of the events described in Chapter 1, the cycle asks whether there are limits to the evolutionary model of survival of the fittest that operates in an age of class warfare, and whether in a poetic world that formerly cultivated dialogue the poet still has a place.
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Pub Date : 2020-07-30DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198857938.003.0012
Andrew Kahn
This chapter concentrates on the poems of the First Voronezh Notebook that chronicle exile, starting with the journey into the unknown and transitioning unevenly to the theme of habituation. Drawing on folkloric tropes as well as cinematic devices, the poems represent a hope that the exile might escape through shape-shifting or heroic antics, as well as the fear of oblivion that he faces. One key anxiety and source of inspiration concerns the endlessness of the flat steppe extending from Voronezh, and the poet turns his mind to plotting the geography of exile in relation to the Kremlin, to metropolitan culture, to Voronezh itself, and ultimately to the vast space that threatens to engulf him. Counterpointing poems about human contact and socialization are lyrics that with ‘an eye sharper than steel’ scrutinize space for forms that can be moulded by the imagination.
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Pub Date : 2020-07-30DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198857938.003.0011
Andrew Kahn
Mandelstam wrote another set of poems marked by the contrast between love as a form of deep social feeling and love as a renunciation of the earthly. Poems that represent love as a social bond celebrate intimacy as friendship, showing a sense of ethical responsibility and protective consolation in a hostile world. Love as depicted here is, in the famous phrase of the Russian philosopher Vladimir Soloviev in On the Meaning of Love, ‘the justification and salvation of individuality through the sacrifice of egoism’. Other poems elevate love to a metaphysical category, reviving the use of archetype that Mandelstam favoured before 1918. But instead of troubled figures like Phaedra and Helen of Troy, the feminine ideal projected here takes the form of otherworldly angels who transcend death. Those visions of the eternal beloved complement the poet’s flight to safety described in the final poems of exile.
曼德尔施塔姆还写了另一组诗，以爱作为一种深刻的社会情感和爱作为一种对世俗的放弃之间的对比为标志。把爱情当作社会纽带的诗，把亲密当作友谊来赞美，表现出在充满敌意的世界里的伦理责任感和保护性安慰。正如俄罗斯哲学家弗拉基米尔·索洛维耶夫在《论爱的意义》中所说的那样，这里所描述的爱是“通过牺牲利己主义来证明和拯救个性”。其他诗歌将爱情提升到一个形而上的范畴，恢复了曼德尔施塔姆在1918年之前喜欢的原型的使用。但与费德拉(Phaedra)和特洛伊的海伦(Helen of Troy)等陷入困境的人物不同，这里展现的女性理想是以超越死亡的超凡天使的形式出现的。那些对永恒爱人的憧憬补充了诗人在流放的最后几首诗中描述的逃向安全之地。
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