Pub Date : 2023-03-23DOI: 10.1163/1871191x-bja10162
Rick W. Sturdevant
International military alliances have developed to deter potential foes from initiating war and, when deterrence fails, to defeat enemies. From the earliest days of spaceflight, US military leaders have partnered with other nations for various purposes. With the space domain becoming more congested and contested in the early 21st century¸ the US defence establishment has begun expanding and strengthening space-related relationships with like-minded international partners to deter irresponsible, adversarial space behaviour and perpetuate peaceful uses of the outer space domain for civil and commercial purposes.
{"title":"Deterrence and Defence: The US Military and International Partnering for Peace in Outer Space","authors":"Rick W. Sturdevant","doi":"10.1163/1871191x-bja10162","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/1871191x-bja10162","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000International military alliances have developed to deter potential foes from initiating war and, when deterrence fails, to defeat enemies. From the earliest days of spaceflight, US military leaders have partnered with other nations for various purposes. With the space domain becoming more congested and contested in the early 21st century¸ the US defence establishment has begun expanding and strengthening space-related relationships with like-minded international partners to deter irresponsible, adversarial space behaviour and perpetuate peaceful uses of the outer space domain for civil and commercial purposes.","PeriodicalId":44787,"journal":{"name":"Hague Journal of Diplomacy","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2023-03-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"42599323","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-03-23DOI: 10.1163/1871191x-bja10155
Kunhan Li, M. Mayer
This article compares two central pillars of China’s space programme and observes that Chinese space diplomacy is not uniform regarding international scientific co-operation either in its approaches or in results. In the case of the Chinese Space Station programme, the China National Space Administration went through existing United Nations (UN) channels and successfully attracted international partners. However, the International Lunar Research Station has avoided UN channels and used national and bilateral platforms. This bifurcation in approaches and results offers an intriguing puzzle concerning international co-operation: practices of institutionalised multilateral co-operation and areas of state-centric bilateral co-operation co-exist in this case and further complicate the issue of space diplomacy. To propose a potential explanation, it is argued here that a crucial intermediate variable — institutional density — requires further theorising, as it seems to influence strategic choices about space diplomacy, which may lead to success or failure.
{"title":"China’s Bifurcated Space Diplomacy and Institutional Density","authors":"Kunhan Li, M. Mayer","doi":"10.1163/1871191x-bja10155","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/1871191x-bja10155","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000This article compares two central pillars of China’s space programme and observes that Chinese space diplomacy is not uniform regarding international scientific co-operation either in its approaches or in results. In the case of the Chinese Space Station programme, the China National Space Administration went through existing United Nations (UN) channels and successfully attracted international partners. However, the International Lunar Research Station has avoided UN channels and used national and bilateral platforms. This bifurcation in approaches and results offers an intriguing puzzle concerning international co-operation: practices of institutionalised multilateral co-operation and areas of state-centric bilateral co-operation co-exist in this case and further complicate the issue of space diplomacy. To propose a potential explanation, it is argued here that a crucial intermediate variable — institutional density — requires further theorising, as it seems to influence strategic choices about space diplomacy, which may lead to success or failure.","PeriodicalId":44787,"journal":{"name":"Hague Journal of Diplomacy","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2023-03-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48425124","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-03-23DOI: 10.1163/1871191x-bja10152
Maia Cross, Saadia M. Pekkanen
A quantum leap is under way in space as a domain of human activity. The global space economy has rapidly reached almost USD450 billion in size and is projected to grow to over USD1 trillion by the 2040s. There are hundreds of actors involved, from space agencies to private companies to start-ups. Over 70 countries have space programmes and 14 have launch capabilities. These developments have involved intense transnational and international co-operation and competition, across both the public and private sectors. With such rapid changes underway, this article takes stock of how these developments impact international relations. Overall, this is the first special issue in the field of international relations to use theories of diplomacy to bring to light the various ways in which experts, scientists, astronauts, space enthusiasts and professional diplomats, among others, have shaped the formal and informal interactions among states in this key area of foreign policy.
{"title":"Introduction. Space Diplomacy: The Final Frontier of Theory and Practice","authors":"Maia Cross, Saadia M. Pekkanen","doi":"10.1163/1871191x-bja10152","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/1871191x-bja10152","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000A quantum leap is under way in space as a domain of human activity. The global space economy has rapidly reached almost USD450 billion in size and is projected to grow to over USD1 trillion by the 2040s. There are hundreds of actors involved, from space agencies to private companies to start-ups. Over 70 countries have space programmes and 14 have launch capabilities. These developments have involved intense transnational and international co-operation and competition, across both the public and private sectors. With such rapid changes underway, this article takes stock of how these developments impact international relations. Overall, this is the first special issue in the field of international relations to use theories of diplomacy to bring to light the various ways in which experts, scientists, astronauts, space enthusiasts and professional diplomats, among others, have shaped the formal and informal interactions among states in this key area of foreign policy.","PeriodicalId":44787,"journal":{"name":"Hague Journal of Diplomacy","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2023-03-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43910461","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-02-27DOI: 10.1163/1871191x-bja10153
Abhinand Siddharth Srinivas
{"title":"Non-Western Global Theories of International Relations, edited by Samantha Cooke","authors":"Abhinand Siddharth Srinivas","doi":"10.1163/1871191x-bja10153","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/1871191x-bja10153","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":44787,"journal":{"name":"Hague Journal of Diplomacy","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2023-02-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48024263","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-02-22DOI: 10.1163/1871191x-bja10151
Nancy Riordan, Miloslav Machoň, Lucia Csajková
The growth of human activity in outer space is attracting more International Relations (IR) scholar’s attention, enabling an understanding of the involvement of specific groups of actors and the dynamics of political negotiations that lead to concluding agreements on using outer space for peaceful purposes. This article provides analysis based on the triangulation of qualitative data gathered via document analysis and in-depth semi-structured expert interviews to gain insight into the involvement of the actors responsible for the negotiations that led to the Artemis Accords and their diplomatic communication style. The results identified different uses of public and private diplomatic communication for advancing norms of behaviour and transparency. Negotiators used public diplomatic communication in order to influence foreign governments on the need for norms of behaviour and transparency to further peaceful space exploration beyond low Earth orbit. Private diplomatic communication facilitated the inclusion of commercial partners.
{"title":"Space Diplomacy and the Artemis Accords","authors":"Nancy Riordan, Miloslav Machoň, Lucia Csajková","doi":"10.1163/1871191x-bja10151","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/1871191x-bja10151","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000The growth of human activity in outer space is attracting more International Relations (IR) scholar’s attention, enabling an understanding of the involvement of specific groups of actors and the dynamics of political negotiations that lead to concluding agreements on using outer space for peaceful purposes. This article provides analysis based on the triangulation of qualitative data gathered via document analysis and in-depth semi-structured expert interviews to gain insight into the involvement of the actors responsible for the negotiations that led to the Artemis Accords and their diplomatic communication style. The results identified different uses of public and private diplomatic communication for advancing norms of behaviour and transparency. Negotiators used public diplomatic communication in order to influence foreign governments on the need for norms of behaviour and transparency to further peaceful space exploration beyond low Earth orbit. Private diplomatic communication facilitated the inclusion of commercial partners.","PeriodicalId":44787,"journal":{"name":"Hague Journal of Diplomacy","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2023-02-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45913012","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-02-08DOI: 10.1163/1871191x-bja10150
M. Borowitz
Over the past 70 years, the world has established an impressive history of international co-operation on weather monitoring via satellite, but this co-operation has not always been consistent. Following the launch of the first weather satellites, an international World Weather Watch system was established, and the United States engaged in bilateral co-operation and data exchange with the Soviet Union. However, more recently, co-operation in this area has been more challenging. While the World Weather Watch continues to operate, there were questions in the 2010s about the United States’ ability to maintain its full contribution to the international weather monitoring system, and suggestions to pursue bilateral co-operation with China in this area were spurned by Congress. This article investigates the variation in diplomatic efforts in this area, focusing on the key actors involved in space diplomacy, the underlying goals of space diplomacy efforts and the processes by which space diplomacy occurs.
{"title":"Let’s Just Talk About the Weather: Weather Satellites and Space Diplomacy","authors":"M. Borowitz","doi":"10.1163/1871191x-bja10150","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/1871191x-bja10150","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000Over the past 70 years, the world has established an impressive history of international co-operation on weather monitoring via satellite, but this co-operation has not always been consistent. Following the launch of the first weather satellites, an international World Weather Watch system was established, and the United States engaged in bilateral co-operation and data exchange with the Soviet Union. However, more recently, co-operation in this area has been more challenging. While the World Weather Watch continues to operate, there were questions in the 2010s about the United States’ ability to maintain its full contribution to the international weather monitoring system, and suggestions to pursue bilateral co-operation with China in this area were spurned by Congress. This article investigates the variation in diplomatic efforts in this area, focusing on the key actors involved in space diplomacy, the underlying goals of space diplomacy efforts and the processes by which space diplomacy occurs.","PeriodicalId":44787,"journal":{"name":"Hague Journal of Diplomacy","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2023-02-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"49526649","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-01-26DOI: 10.1163/1871191x-bja10149
W. Stewart, J. Dittmer
This article explores the role of materiality in space diplomacy through the example of orbital docking technology by tracing its evolution from the early days of the space age to the International Space Station — and beyond. Drawing on the use of assemblage theory in political geography, this article argues for a ‘more-than-human’ approach to space diplomacy to supplement and provide an alternative to conventional approaches to diplomacy studies. By conceptualising the International Space Station as a diplomatic assemblage with which the multinational partners become enmeshed, we investigate how materials, specifically androgynous orbital docking technology, fostered co-operation and peace in the wake of the Cold War and which continues today.
{"title":"More-than-Human Space Diplomacy: Assembling Internationalism in Orbit","authors":"W. Stewart, J. Dittmer","doi":"10.1163/1871191x-bja10149","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/1871191x-bja10149","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000This article explores the role of materiality in space diplomacy through the example of orbital docking technology by tracing its evolution from the early days of the space age to the International Space Station — and beyond. Drawing on the use of assemblage theory in political geography, this article argues for a ‘more-than-human’ approach to space diplomacy to supplement and provide an alternative to conventional approaches to diplomacy studies. By conceptualising the International Space Station as a diplomatic assemblage with which the multinational partners become enmeshed, we investigate how materials, specifically androgynous orbital docking technology, fostered co-operation and peace in the wake of the Cold War and which continues today.","PeriodicalId":44787,"journal":{"name":"Hague Journal of Diplomacy","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2023-01-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43273179","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-01-26DOI: 10.1163/1871191x-bja10148
Marianne Riddervold
The European Union (EU) has become a key player in space, second only to that of the USA. This article discusses what type of diplomatic actor the EU is in space by exploring whether it contributes to peaceful co-operation or if the EU — due to increasing geopolitical competition on Earth — is developing into a traditional realist actor. For this purpose, it applies three analytically distinct models of EU space policies, applicable also to other Global Commons areas. It finds that the EU does not treat space as an area of geopolitical competition. Instead, it contributes to space diplomacy through its focus on regulating and institutionalising space activities. However, rather than being driven by ‘the space flight idea’, the EU is committed to the peaceful development of space mainly for economic, strategic and societal purposes, in line with what one would expect of a liberal institutionalist actor.
{"title":"The European Union’s Space Diplomacy: Contributing to Peaceful Co-operation?","authors":"Marianne Riddervold","doi":"10.1163/1871191x-bja10148","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/1871191x-bja10148","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000The European Union (EU) has become a key player in space, second only to that of the USA. This article discusses what type of diplomatic actor the EU is in space by exploring whether it contributes to peaceful co-operation or if the EU — due to increasing geopolitical competition on Earth — is developing into a traditional realist actor. For this purpose, it applies three analytically distinct models of EU space policies, applicable also to other Global Commons areas. It finds that the EU does not treat space as an area of geopolitical competition. Instead, it contributes to space diplomacy through its focus on regulating and institutionalising space activities. However, rather than being driven by ‘the space flight idea’, the EU is committed to the peaceful development of space mainly for economic, strategic and societal purposes, in line with what one would expect of a liberal institutionalist actor.","PeriodicalId":44787,"journal":{"name":"Hague Journal of Diplomacy","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2023-01-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45518319","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-01-19DOI: 10.1163/1871191x-bja10147
Anna-Lena Rüland
The American Association for the Advancement of Science and the British Royal Society’s science diplomacy taxonomy has received much criticism. Some argue that there is a lack of empirical evidence to underpin the taxonomy’s three science diplomacy dimensions. This particularly applies to the third dimension, science for diplomacy, and its effectiveness. Others criticise the taxonomy for painting the picture of compliant scientists who would discard their academic ideals to support foreign policy objectives. Against the backdrop of these two points of criticism, this study investigates if scientists are willing to support political objectives through science collaborations. It also examines under which conditions science for diplomacy is effective. Using the epistemic community approach, expert interviews and a case study, the study argues that science for diplomacy is effective if it is promoted by a close-knit epistemic community and shows that scientists oppose the instrumentalisation of scientific collaboration for political purposes.
{"title":"The Effectiveness of Science Diplomacy between Adversarial States: Insights from US–Cuban and US–Iranian Science Collaborations","authors":"Anna-Lena Rüland","doi":"10.1163/1871191x-bja10147","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/1871191x-bja10147","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000The American Association for the Advancement of Science and the British Royal Society’s science diplomacy taxonomy has received much criticism. Some argue that there is a lack of empirical evidence to underpin the taxonomy’s three science diplomacy dimensions. This particularly applies to the third dimension, science for diplomacy, and its effectiveness. Others criticise the taxonomy for painting the picture of compliant scientists who would discard their academic ideals to support foreign policy objectives. Against the backdrop of these two points of criticism, this study investigates if scientists are willing to support political objectives through science collaborations. It also examines under which conditions science for diplomacy is effective. Using the epistemic community approach, expert interviews and a case study, the study argues that science for diplomacy is effective if it is promoted by a close-knit epistemic community and shows that scientists oppose the instrumentalisation of scientific collaboration for political purposes.","PeriodicalId":44787,"journal":{"name":"Hague Journal of Diplomacy","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2023-01-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43126848","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2023-01-18DOI: 10.1163/1871191x-bja10146
Louis Clerc
Social imaginaries carried by the entertainment industry matter for understanding how the general public makes sense of complex social phenomena. Mass culture is a representation of pre-existing ideas on international politics, rooted in space and time, and a constitutive element of the social and political world. Mass entertainment, as well as massively popular forms of popular culture such as video games, are only now entering the field of vision of scholars interested in cultural representations of international relations. This article contributes to this trend by looking at visions of diplomacy present in a global mass entertainment franchise: Hasbro’s My Little Pony. Behind the lighter aspects of a show created for young children lies a fictional universe with elements of diplomacy and international relations. The article insists on the importance of visions of early 21st-century American unipolar order and a liberal view of international politics in the show’s world.
{"title":"A Better Hegemon? My Little Pony as a Pop Representation of Diplomacy in the Context of American Hegemony","authors":"Louis Clerc","doi":"10.1163/1871191x-bja10146","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1163/1871191x-bja10146","url":null,"abstract":"\u0000Social imaginaries carried by the entertainment industry matter for understanding how the general public makes sense of complex social phenomena. Mass culture is a representation of pre-existing ideas on international politics, rooted in space and time, and a constitutive element of the social and political world. Mass entertainment, as well as massively popular forms of popular culture such as video games, are only now entering the field of vision of scholars interested in cultural representations of international relations. This article contributes to this trend by looking at visions of diplomacy present in a global mass entertainment franchise: Hasbro’s My Little Pony. Behind the lighter aspects of a show created for young children lies a fictional universe with elements of diplomacy and international relations. The article insists on the importance of visions of early 21st-century American unipolar order and a liberal view of international politics in the show’s world.","PeriodicalId":44787,"journal":{"name":"Hague Journal of Diplomacy","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.4,"publicationDate":"2023-01-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43413332","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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