Pub Date : 2021-05-01DOI: 10.1177/0269758020988218
Michael L. Valan, M. Srinivasan
The present research is an attempt to explain the problem of child marriage in light of routine activity theory, developed by Felson and Cohen in 1979. There is, however, no specific theory that exclusively addresses either children as victims of crime in general or victims of child marriage in particular. Unlike other crime victims, however, certain victims of child marriage do not view themselves as ‘victims’, given the underlying causative factors and the justification of the consequences of such victimization. Routine activity theory was initially intended to explain property crimes. In course of time, scholars of victimology began applying this theory to explain various kinds of victimization, including domestic violence in different contexts. In this connection, a study was conducted among victims of child marriage in the state of Tamil Nadu, India, to link the practice of child marriage with the routine activity theory. For the purpose of the present research, data were collected from 252 women who were married as children. The findings of the research have revealed that the practice of child marriage can be explained from two dimensions: the first explains the causes underlying its occurrence, and the second deals with how intimate partner violence plays out in such circumstances. The outcome of this research is expected to fill a gap in the literature in the field of victimology.
{"title":"The application of routine activity theory in explaining victimization of child marriage","authors":"Michael L. Valan, M. Srinivasan","doi":"10.1177/0269758020988218","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/0269758020988218","url":null,"abstract":"The present research is an attempt to explain the problem of child marriage in light of routine activity theory, developed by Felson and Cohen in 1979. There is, however, no specific theory that exclusively addresses either children as victims of crime in general or victims of child marriage in particular. Unlike other crime victims, however, certain victims of child marriage do not view themselves as ‘victims’, given the underlying causative factors and the justification of the consequences of such victimization. Routine activity theory was initially intended to explain property crimes. In course of time, scholars of victimology began applying this theory to explain various kinds of victimization, including domestic violence in different contexts. In this connection, a study was conducted among victims of child marriage in the state of Tamil Nadu, India, to link the practice of child marriage with the routine activity theory. For the purpose of the present research, data were collected from 252 women who were married as children. The findings of the research have revealed that the practice of child marriage can be explained from two dimensions: the first explains the causes underlying its occurrence, and the second deals with how intimate partner violence plays out in such circumstances. The outcome of this research is expected to fill a gap in the literature in the field of victimology.","PeriodicalId":45622,"journal":{"name":"International Review of Victimology","volume":"27 1","pages":"211 - 226"},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2021-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1177/0269758020988218","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45795381","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-05-01DOI: 10.1177/0269758021993338
J. Messing, Meredith E. Bagwell-Gray, Allison Ward-Lasher, A. Durfee
Protection orders (POs) are one legal system resource available to survivors of intimate partner violence. Many survivors choose not to obtain a PO, yet prior research has not examined the perspectives of these survivors. This study examined the open-ended survey responses (n = 308) regarding the choice not to obtain a PO by survivors residing in emergency shelters in the United States. Content analysis indicated that many survivors made deliberate decisions to not seek safety through this venue. Survivors indicated that a PO may increase their partner’s violence, identified substantial barriers, evaluated a PO as unnecessary, preferred alternative strategies, were dealing with complex partner dynamics, and chose to protect their loved ones by not seeking a PO. Women with marginalized identities, in particular, indicated that there are multiple costs to seeking interventions within the legal system. Structural changes are needed within the legal system to facilitate access to justice for survivors.
{"title":"‘Not bullet proof’: The complex choice not to seek a civil protection order for intimate partner violence","authors":"J. Messing, Meredith E. Bagwell-Gray, Allison Ward-Lasher, A. Durfee","doi":"10.1177/0269758021993338","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/0269758021993338","url":null,"abstract":"Protection orders (POs) are one legal system resource available to survivors of intimate partner violence. Many survivors choose not to obtain a PO, yet prior research has not examined the perspectives of these survivors. This study examined the open-ended survey responses (n = 308) regarding the choice not to obtain a PO by survivors residing in emergency shelters in the United States. Content analysis indicated that many survivors made deliberate decisions to not seek safety through this venue. Survivors indicated that a PO may increase their partner’s violence, identified substantial barriers, evaluated a PO as unnecessary, preferred alternative strategies, were dealing with complex partner dynamics, and chose to protect their loved ones by not seeking a PO. Women with marginalized identities, in particular, indicated that there are multiple costs to seeking interventions within the legal system. Structural changes are needed within the legal system to facilitate access to justice for survivors.","PeriodicalId":45622,"journal":{"name":"International Review of Victimology","volume":"27 1","pages":"173 - 195"},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2021-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1177/0269758021993338","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43156562","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-04-23DOI: 10.1177/02697580211005013
Sarah Monod de Froideville
The number of victims from environmental harm far exceeds that from everyday property and interpersonal crime, yet little is known about the experience of environmental victimisation. This paper makes a case for a narrative green victimology to advance scholarship about environmental victims, drawing on data from interviews with persons affected by a waterborne outbreak of campylobacter in the small town of Havelock North, New Zealand, in August 2016. Findings demonstrate that understandings of environmental harm are developed in narratives, with narratives. In particular, participants’ stories of harm and victimisation revealed fragments of larger, cultural narratives about sacrifice, nation-building, motherhood, and environmental purity, each of which affected their understanding of the impact of the outbreak on their autonomy as agentive persons. It is proposed that a narrative green victimology offers environmental victimology a platform upon which it can foot its frameworks.
{"title":"Storied experiences of the Havelock North drinking water crisis: A case for a ‘narrative green victimology’","authors":"Sarah Monod de Froideville","doi":"10.1177/02697580211005013","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/02697580211005013","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The number of victims from environmental harm far exceeds that from everyday property and interpersonal crime, yet little is known about the experience of environmental victimisation. This paper makes a case for a narrative green victimology to advance scholarship about environmental victims, drawing on data from interviews with persons affected by a waterborne outbreak of campylobacter in the small town of Havelock North, New Zealand, in August 2016. Findings demonstrate that understandings of environmental harm are developed in narratives, with narratives. In particular, participants’ stories of harm and victimisation revealed fragments of larger, cultural narratives about sacrifice, nation-building, motherhood, and environmental purity, each of which affected their understanding of the impact of the outbreak on their autonomy as agentive persons. It is proposed that a narrative green victimology offers environmental victimology a platform upon which it can foot its frameworks.</p>","PeriodicalId":45622,"journal":{"name":"International Review of Victimology","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2021-04-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"138533019","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-04-22DOI: 10.1177/02697580211006663
Maya Flax
This paper analyses the coping mechanisms which Orthodox Jews in North London have adopted in managing antisemitism. The study, which was informed by a sociological framework, employed a qualitative approach using 28 semi-structured interviews and five focus groups. The findings reveal that despite the high frequency of the victimisation, and despite the awareness among respondents that antisemitism has seen a resurgence in recent years, Orthodox Jews have managed to accept the victimisation. The way the Orthodox Jewish community has managed their victimisation of antisemitism is argued to be profoundly different from the dominant narratives of hate crime victims, in that by and large the majority of respondents accepted their victimisation. It proposes that respondents were able to show agency and to normalise the victimisation because of their strong religious identity and close community ties.
{"title":"‘Antisemitism is just part of my day-to-day life’: Coping mechanisms adopted by Orthodox Jews in North London","authors":"Maya Flax","doi":"10.1177/02697580211006663","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/02697580211006663","url":null,"abstract":"This paper analyses the coping mechanisms which Orthodox Jews in North London have adopted in managing antisemitism. The study, which was informed by a sociological framework, employed a qualitative approach using 28 semi-structured interviews and five focus groups. The findings reveal that despite the high frequency of the victimisation, and despite the awareness among respondents that antisemitism has seen a resurgence in recent years, Orthodox Jews have managed to accept the victimisation. The way the Orthodox Jewish community has managed their victimisation of antisemitism is argued to be profoundly different from the dominant narratives of hate crime victims, in that by and large the majority of respondents accepted their victimisation. It proposes that respondents were able to show agency and to normalise the victimisation because of their strong religious identity and close community ties.","PeriodicalId":45622,"journal":{"name":"International Review of Victimology","volume":"27 1","pages":"295 - 310"},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2021-04-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1177/02697580211006663","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45960899","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-04-08DOI: 10.1177/02697580211008008
Sarah Britto
that is often called into question. Using case excerpts, quotes from victims and offenders, and her own experience, Dr Valliere breaks down common criticisms of victim behaviors and expands on offender tactics critical to explore in the investigation and prosecution process. This compact guide is an excellent, easy to understand resource for anyone engaged in practice, research, and policy work on interpersonal violence. It is also a useful resource, and one I plan to use in the future, for courses on interpersonal victimization and offending.
{"title":"Book review: After Homicide: Victims’ Families in the Criminal Justice System","authors":"Sarah Britto","doi":"10.1177/02697580211008008","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/02697580211008008","url":null,"abstract":"that is often called into question. Using case excerpts, quotes from victims and offenders, and her own experience, Dr Valliere breaks down common criticisms of victim behaviors and expands on offender tactics critical to explore in the investigation and prosecution process. This compact guide is an excellent, easy to understand resource for anyone engaged in practice, research, and policy work on interpersonal violence. It is also a useful resource, and one I plan to use in the future, for courses on interpersonal victimization and offending.","PeriodicalId":45622,"journal":{"name":"International Review of Victimology","volume":"27 1","pages":"367 - 368"},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2021-04-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1177/02697580211008008","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44145635","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-03-09DOI: 10.1177/0269758021993339
L. Long
Using a critical race theory (CRT) framework, this paper analyses Black and Black mixed- race people’s experiences of reporting crime. It is based on qualitative interviews with 20 participants. The analysis finds that the process of becoming the (un)victim is mediated through the intersection of race with gender and masculinity, class and migrant status. Ultimately, Black and Black mixed-race men are the ‘ideal offender’ rather than the ‘ideal victim’ (Christie, 1986). The research finds that the (un)victim experiences racial re-victimization and develops an altered perception of the police as a trusted body. The racialized affect of being the (un)victim is greater than the effects of minor crime on the victim. The challenges that this poses to the relationship between Black communities and the police are explored and the implications for future practice discussed.
{"title":"The ideal victim: A critical race theory (CRT) approach","authors":"L. Long","doi":"10.1177/0269758021993339","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/0269758021993339","url":null,"abstract":"Using a critical race theory (CRT) framework, this paper analyses Black and Black mixed- race people’s experiences of reporting crime. It is based on qualitative interviews with 20 participants. The analysis finds that the process of becoming the (un)victim is mediated through the intersection of race with gender and masculinity, class and migrant status. Ultimately, Black and Black mixed-race men are the ‘ideal offender’ rather than the ‘ideal victim’ (Christie, 1986). The research finds that the (un)victim experiences racial re-victimization and develops an altered perception of the police as a trusted body. The racialized affect of being the (un)victim is greater than the effects of minor crime on the victim. The challenges that this poses to the relationship between Black communities and the police are explored and the implications for future practice discussed.","PeriodicalId":45622,"journal":{"name":"International Review of Victimology","volume":"27 1","pages":"344 - 362"},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2021-03-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1177/0269758021993339","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48399538","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-03-03DOI: 10.1177/0269758021995909
M. Hall
This paper sets out to critically explore the connections drawn by Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary and Fire & Rescue Services between police adherence to national crime recording standards and the provision of service and support by the police to victims of crime. The goal of the paper is to identify what assumptions are being made by Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary and Fire & Rescue Services concerning how and why ‘accurate’ crime recording impacts upon victims and to test those assumptions against the broader victimological literature. In so doing, the paper will also shed light on the progress made by police services in this regard since significant concerns were raised about the impact of ‘poor’ crime recording on victims of crime by Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary in its 2014 report Crime-recording: Making the victim count.
{"title":"Counting crime: Discounting victims?","authors":"M. Hall","doi":"10.1177/0269758021995909","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/0269758021995909","url":null,"abstract":"This paper sets out to critically explore the connections drawn by Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary and Fire & Rescue Services between police adherence to national crime recording standards and the provision of service and support by the police to victims of crime. The goal of the paper is to identify what assumptions are being made by Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary and Fire & Rescue Services concerning how and why ‘accurate’ crime recording impacts upon victims and to test those assumptions against the broader victimological literature. In so doing, the paper will also shed light on the progress made by police services in this regard since significant concerns were raised about the impact of ‘poor’ crime recording on victims of crime by Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary in its 2014 report Crime-recording: Making the victim count.","PeriodicalId":45622,"journal":{"name":"International Review of Victimology","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2021-03-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1177/0269758021995909","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"49189708","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-03-03DOI: 10.1177/0269758021992675
Ekaterina Gorislavsky, Dennis Mares
The current study uses pooled National Crime Victimization Survey data (1992–2015) to examine if the relationship between climate change and victimization risk is modified by victim and incident characteristics. Panel analysis yields interesting findings. First, results mirror those found in prior studies utilizing Uniform Crime Report data, providing another indication that the link between a warming climate and crime may be quite robust. Second, the results indicate that climatic effects may play out differently in different contexts. For example, outdoor victimizations, especially those near a person’s residence, appear increasingly elastic during anomalously warm temperatures. In addition, subpopulations (males and African Americans) are also at increased risk of victimization. Our results effectively suggest that at-risk populations are more vulnerable to climatic variability.
{"title":"Climate change and victimization risk: A disaggregated look at NCVS data","authors":"Ekaterina Gorislavsky, Dennis Mares","doi":"10.1177/0269758021992675","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/0269758021992675","url":null,"abstract":"The current study uses pooled National Crime Victimization Survey data (1992–2015) to examine if the relationship between climate change and victimization risk is modified by victim and incident characteristics. Panel analysis yields interesting findings. First, results mirror those found in prior studies utilizing Uniform Crime Report data, providing another indication that the link between a warming climate and crime may be quite robust. Second, the results indicate that climatic effects may play out differently in different contexts. For example, outdoor victimizations, especially those near a person’s residence, appear increasingly elastic during anomalously warm temperatures. In addition, subpopulations (males and African Americans) are also at increased risk of victimization. Our results effectively suggest that at-risk populations are more vulnerable to climatic variability.","PeriodicalId":45622,"journal":{"name":"International Review of Victimology","volume":"28 1","pages":"52 - 68"},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2021-03-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1177/0269758021992675","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44420431","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-11-26DOI: 10.1177/0269758020970414
Mimi E. Kim
In the United States, the contemporary feminist movement against gender-based violence started in the early 1970s, just as ideologies and policies supporting mass criminalization launched what became a five-fold rise in U.S. rates of incarceration. Since the new millennium, people of color have taken the lead in re-envisioning fundamental notions of justice given the dramatic backdrop of mass incarceration and the recent upsurge in prison abolitionist possibilities. Central to this reformulation has been a social justice critique that recognizes the intersection of gender-based violence and other forms of interpersonal violence with the violence of the state, most concentrated within U.S. carceral institutions. While the U.S. roots of violence as well as resistance to this violence extend back to the earliest days of colonial occupation, the contemporary manifestation of the anti-violence struggle has taken on the labels of restorative justice and, more recently, transformative justice. This conceptual paper relies upon historical analysis of the contemporary anti-violence movement, secondary legal literature, and insider social movement knowledge to trace recent trends in the movement to redefine notions of justice in its application to gender-based violence, the contrasting trajectories of restorative justice and transformative justice, and the liberatory vision and practices of transformative justice.
{"title":"Transformative justice and restorative justice: Gender-based violence and alternative visions of justice in the United States","authors":"Mimi E. Kim","doi":"10.1177/0269758020970414","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/0269758020970414","url":null,"abstract":"In the United States, the contemporary feminist movement against gender-based violence started in the early 1970s, just as ideologies and policies supporting mass criminalization launched what became a five-fold rise in U.S. rates of incarceration. Since the new millennium, people of color have taken the lead in re-envisioning fundamental notions of justice given the dramatic backdrop of mass incarceration and the recent upsurge in prison abolitionist possibilities. Central to this reformulation has been a social justice critique that recognizes the intersection of gender-based violence and other forms of interpersonal violence with the violence of the state, most concentrated within U.S. carceral institutions. While the U.S. roots of violence as well as resistance to this violence extend back to the earliest days of colonial occupation, the contemporary manifestation of the anti-violence struggle has taken on the labels of restorative justice and, more recently, transformative justice. This conceptual paper relies upon historical analysis of the contemporary anti-violence movement, secondary legal literature, and insider social movement knowledge to trace recent trends in the movement to redefine notions of justice in its application to gender-based violence, the contrasting trajectories of restorative justice and transformative justice, and the liberatory vision and practices of transformative justice.","PeriodicalId":45622,"journal":{"name":"International Review of Victimology","volume":"27 1","pages":"162 - 172"},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2020-11-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1177/0269758020970414","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45634039","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-11-18DOI: 10.1177/0269758020971060
James Pickles
Hate crimes carry many emotional and psychological detriments for those who are targeted because of who they are. The harms associated with hate are commonly theorized in the context of those directly targeted. Using a victimological lens, I consider how the harms of a mass anti-LGBT+ shooting in Orlando, Florida were carried across social media, indirectly victimizing LGBT+ people in the North East of England. This article examines seven distinct interviews conducted post-Orlando from a wider sample of 32. LGBT+ participants were victimized vicariously by receiving news of the Orlando shooting. They utilized social media to organize vigils, stand in solidarity with LGBT+ Floridians, and share in the emotional distress caused by the shooting. The findings contribute to our understandings of hate crime as a communicative tool, by examining the role of social media in carrying the emotional harms associated with hate. Through these in-depth narratives, this article encourages a conversation about how hate crimes, transmitted across social media, can victimize people who share the victimized identity with the direct victims.
{"title":"Sociality of hate: The transmission of victimization of LGBT+ people through social media","authors":"James Pickles","doi":"10.1177/0269758020971060","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1177/0269758020971060","url":null,"abstract":"Hate crimes carry many emotional and psychological detriments for those who are targeted because of who they are. The harms associated with hate are commonly theorized in the context of those directly targeted. Using a victimological lens, I consider how the harms of a mass anti-LGBT+ shooting in Orlando, Florida were carried across social media, indirectly victimizing LGBT+ people in the North East of England. This article examines seven distinct interviews conducted post-Orlando from a wider sample of 32. LGBT+ participants were victimized vicariously by receiving news of the Orlando shooting. They utilized social media to organize vigils, stand in solidarity with LGBT+ Floridians, and share in the emotional distress caused by the shooting. The findings contribute to our understandings of hate crime as a communicative tool, by examining the role of social media in carrying the emotional harms associated with hate. Through these in-depth narratives, this article encourages a conversation about how hate crimes, transmitted across social media, can victimize people who share the victimized identity with the direct victims.","PeriodicalId":45622,"journal":{"name":"International Review of Victimology","volume":"27 1","pages":"311 - 327"},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2020-11-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1177/0269758020971060","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43924824","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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