Pub Date : 2022-03-09DOI: 10.1080/13617672.2022.2047557
Benjamin Jones
ABSTRACT Since 1981, James Fowler’s stage model of faith development has provided researchers with a framework for understanding the ways in which people develop belief systems over the course of their lives. Despite its helpfulness, there are several notable areas of critique that can be levelled against the model, including its lack of parsimony, heavy reliance on structural-developmental design, and lack of responsiveness to diversity. This article revises Fowler’s stage model into a process model, reducing the seven stages of his original design into four process steps that occur during belief formation and re-evaluation. These four steps – religious socialisation, early questioning, exploration and engagement, and refinement – can offer researchers a meaningful and parsimonious path for understanding the process of belief formation, transition, and maintenance. Implications and future directions are discussed.
{"title":"Reimagining Fowler’s Stages of Faith: shifting from a seven stage to a four step framework for faith development","authors":"Benjamin Jones","doi":"10.1080/13617672.2022.2047557","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2022.2047557","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT Since 1981, James Fowler’s stage model of faith development has provided researchers with a framework for understanding the ways in which people develop belief systems over the course of their lives. Despite its helpfulness, there are several notable areas of critique that can be levelled against the model, including its lack of parsimony, heavy reliance on structural-developmental design, and lack of responsiveness to diversity. This article revises Fowler’s stage model into a process model, reducing the seven stages of his original design into four process steps that occur during belief formation and re-evaluation. These four steps – religious socialisation, early questioning, exploration and engagement, and refinement – can offer researchers a meaningful and parsimonious path for understanding the process of belief formation, transition, and maintenance. Implications and future directions are discussed.","PeriodicalId":45928,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Beliefs & Values-Studies in Religion & Education","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.1,"publicationDate":"2022-03-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"86979947","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"哲学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-03-02DOI: 10.1080/13617672.2022.2045699
M. Felderhof
ABSTRACT Using Dr. Marks Chater’s opinion piece as a starting point, this response tries to show why some of the proposed reforms of RE should fail, at least as put forward by the REC’s ‘Commission on RE’. It does so by countering the two major grounds cited by Dr. Chater as obstacles to the ‘reforms’ proposed. Firstly, in so far as one genuinely seeks to convey knowledge and understanding in education, including RE, political considerations are wholly irrelevant. Moreover, contrary to his accusation, having an interest or a passion for a body of knowledge is not corrupting in and of itself, and may even be essential. Hence, religious communities are right to support and promote RE. Political considerations only come into play when one seeks to allocate finite time and resources. Secondly, applying his somewhat alien business model of ‘the economics of producer capture’ to RE, neatly demonstrates the precise opposite of what Dr Chater appears to believe it shows. From this model, it is clear that on no account should RE be entrusted solely into the hands of a small group of ‘producer’ teachers and academics as recommended by the REC’s ‘Commission on RE’. In many respects, the current SACRE role is ideal in recognising diverse interests.
{"title":"A response to Mark Chater’s: why RE’s radical reform could fail: the politics of epistemology and the economics of producer capture","authors":"M. Felderhof","doi":"10.1080/13617672.2022.2045699","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2022.2045699","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT Using Dr. Marks Chater’s opinion piece as a starting point, this response tries to show why some of the proposed reforms of RE should fail, at least as put forward by the REC’s ‘Commission on RE’. It does so by countering the two major grounds cited by Dr. Chater as obstacles to the ‘reforms’ proposed. Firstly, in so far as one genuinely seeks to convey knowledge and understanding in education, including RE, political considerations are wholly irrelevant. Moreover, contrary to his accusation, having an interest or a passion for a body of knowledge is not corrupting in and of itself, and may even be essential. Hence, religious communities are right to support and promote RE. Political considerations only come into play when one seeks to allocate finite time and resources. Secondly, applying his somewhat alien business model of ‘the economics of producer capture’ to RE, neatly demonstrates the precise opposite of what Dr Chater appears to believe it shows. From this model, it is clear that on no account should RE be entrusted solely into the hands of a small group of ‘producer’ teachers and academics as recommended by the REC’s ‘Commission on RE’. In many respects, the current SACRE role is ideal in recognising diverse interests.","PeriodicalId":45928,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Beliefs & Values-Studies in Religion & Education","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.1,"publicationDate":"2022-03-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"88895118","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"哲学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-03-01DOI: 10.1080/13617672.2022.2042103
M. Chater
ABSTRACT This article, which is developed from a keynote given to the Humanists UK RE conference on 28 November 2020 draws attention to the interest groups that operate in and around the world of professional religious education (RE) in England. It argues that reform of RE could still fail. Two factors could spell its end. First is the politics of epistemology, the embedded power structures that shape knowledge and curriculum in the subject. Second is the economics of producer capture, which takes up critical questions about how the RE world is structured, organised, and funded, and how its stakeholders’ interests operate. My definition and exploration of these two factors is followed by a description of how they apply in the RE community. I conclude by urging the RE professional community to face these issues and create new structures which more appropriately serve schools and children.
{"title":"Why RE’s radical reform could fail: The politics of epistemology and the economics of producer capture","authors":"M. Chater","doi":"10.1080/13617672.2022.2042103","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2022.2042103","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT This article, which is developed from a keynote given to the Humanists UK RE conference on 28 November 2020 draws attention to the interest groups that operate in and around the world of professional religious education (RE) in England. It argues that reform of RE could still fail. Two factors could spell its end. First is the politics of epistemology, the embedded power structures that shape knowledge and curriculum in the subject. Second is the economics of producer capture, which takes up critical questions about how the RE world is structured, organised, and funded, and how its stakeholders’ interests operate. My definition and exploration of these two factors is followed by a description of how they apply in the RE community. I conclude by urging the RE professional community to face these issues and create new structures which more appropriately serve schools and children.","PeriodicalId":45928,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Beliefs & Values-Studies in Religion & Education","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.1,"publicationDate":"2022-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"80848560","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"哲学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-02-28DOI: 10.1080/13617672.2022.2039982
S. Gilliat‐Ray, Graeme Smith, Wendy Cadge, Helen Sampson, N. Turgo
ABSTRACT This paper documents the findings of an ESRC-funded project about religion in the context of the international global shipping industry, with particular focus on the work of port chaplains. We describe the physical, emotional, spiritual and financial risks involved in port chaplaincy work, and the way this form of religious employment is distinctly gendered. But the risks and challenges of port chaplaincy are considered alongside its intrinsic rewards and potential for professional fulfilment, most especially through the traffic of material goods and the sharing of hospitality that enable relationships between chaplains and seafarers. Our work contributes to the scholarly field of workplace chaplaincy by providing an empirical case study of port chaplains who typically operate as ‘lone workers’ as they minister to seafarers whose labours are so vital to the global economy. We consider the fact that lone workers can be vulnerable to exclusion from effective management practices which otherwise assume face-to-face interaction.
{"title":"‘Here today, gone tomorrow’: the risks and rewards of port chaplaincy","authors":"S. Gilliat‐Ray, Graeme Smith, Wendy Cadge, Helen Sampson, N. Turgo","doi":"10.1080/13617672.2022.2039982","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2022.2039982","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT This paper documents the findings of an ESRC-funded project about religion in the context of the international global shipping industry, with particular focus on the work of port chaplains. We describe the physical, emotional, spiritual and financial risks involved in port chaplaincy work, and the way this form of religious employment is distinctly gendered. But the risks and challenges of port chaplaincy are considered alongside its intrinsic rewards and potential for professional fulfilment, most especially through the traffic of material goods and the sharing of hospitality that enable relationships between chaplains and seafarers. Our work contributes to the scholarly field of workplace chaplaincy by providing an empirical case study of port chaplains who typically operate as ‘lone workers’ as they minister to seafarers whose labours are so vital to the global economy. We consider the fact that lone workers can be vulnerable to exclusion from effective management practices which otherwise assume face-to-face interaction.","PeriodicalId":45928,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Beliefs & Values-Studies in Religion & Education","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.1,"publicationDate":"2022-02-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"89446570","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"哲学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-01-23DOI: 10.1080/13617672.2022.2029133
L. Le
ABSTRACT Buddhism is popular worldwide. It has been taught both inside and outside schools to enhance teenagers’ attitudes and behaviour. To evaluate how it works, identifying teenagers’ religiosity and the factors that influence it is essential. This study surveyed 140 teenagers attending retreats at three Zen monasteries belonging to the Truc Lam (Bamboo Forest) Zen sect in Vietnam, using a questionnaire to examine how the core dimensions constituting their religiosity associated with each other and with the demographics. Twelve in-depth interviews with teens were also conducted to explore how religious they were. The conclusion was that the religiosity of teenagers involved three core dimensions: religious understanding, faith and practice, which correlated with each other. Furthermore, age and gender had a considerable association with the teens’ religiousness. These findings may help in expanding religious education.
{"title":"Buddhist adolescents’ religiosity: how are its core dimensions correlated with each other and with demographic factors?","authors":"L. Le","doi":"10.1080/13617672.2022.2029133","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2022.2029133","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT Buddhism is popular worldwide. It has been taught both inside and outside schools to enhance teenagers’ attitudes and behaviour. To evaluate how it works, identifying teenagers’ religiosity and the factors that influence it is essential. This study surveyed 140 teenagers attending retreats at three Zen monasteries belonging to the Truc Lam (Bamboo Forest) Zen sect in Vietnam, using a questionnaire to examine how the core dimensions constituting their religiosity associated with each other and with the demographics. Twelve in-depth interviews with teens were also conducted to explore how religious they were. The conclusion was that the religiosity of teenagers involved three core dimensions: religious understanding, faith and practice, which correlated with each other. Furthermore, age and gender had a considerable association with the teens’ religiousness. These findings may help in expanding religious education.","PeriodicalId":45928,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Beliefs & Values-Studies in Religion & Education","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.1,"publicationDate":"2022-01-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"74478849","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"哲学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-01-12DOI: 10.1080/13617672.2022.2027179
Jeremiah O. Adebolajo
are offered at the end of each chapter (except the last), and I can see this book being well used by a group, perhaps by those in training for spiritual direction or more experienced accompanists seeking to reflect on their ministry together. The two authors note at the outset that they are writing as ‘white male Anglican priests firmly in the second half of life’ (p. 2), although they draw upon considerable cross-cultural knowledge and experience, as well as many years’ experience both as directors and directees, and a commitment to ecumenical theology. Inevitably, their own location and biases have shaped the text in a range of ways, not least in a shared Anglican ecclesiology but also, perhaps, in a lack of attention to issues of ethnicity and why spiritual direction (at least in my knowledge and experience) remains a largely white preserve. Presumably this is not because black majority churches do not exercise something akin to what is recognised as spiritual direction in other traditions, but because it is named otherwise and, importantly, may be exercised in distinctive ways? Whilst the authors are keen to relate spiritual direction to the public mission of the church – and this is one of the considerable strengths of the book – I would have liked to see them address issues of power in the spiritual direction relationship rather more, particularly where there is disparity of power in terms of age, ethnicity, gender and other factors, and how this may serve – or hinder – the mission dei. How does spiritual accompaniment as a practice and a process need to change to challenge such disparities of power and to liberate itself from unconscious collusion with the status quo?
{"title":"Religiosity and recognition: multiculturalism and British converts to Islam","authors":"Jeremiah O. Adebolajo","doi":"10.1080/13617672.2022.2027179","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2022.2027179","url":null,"abstract":"are offered at the end of each chapter (except the last), and I can see this book being well used by a group, perhaps by those in training for spiritual direction or more experienced accompanists seeking to reflect on their ministry together. The two authors note at the outset that they are writing as ‘white male Anglican priests firmly in the second half of life’ (p. 2), although they draw upon considerable cross-cultural knowledge and experience, as well as many years’ experience both as directors and directees, and a commitment to ecumenical theology. Inevitably, their own location and biases have shaped the text in a range of ways, not least in a shared Anglican ecclesiology but also, perhaps, in a lack of attention to issues of ethnicity and why spiritual direction (at least in my knowledge and experience) remains a largely white preserve. Presumably this is not because black majority churches do not exercise something akin to what is recognised as spiritual direction in other traditions, but because it is named otherwise and, importantly, may be exercised in distinctive ways? Whilst the authors are keen to relate spiritual direction to the public mission of the church – and this is one of the considerable strengths of the book – I would have liked to see them address issues of power in the spiritual direction relationship rather more, particularly where there is disparity of power in terms of age, ethnicity, gender and other factors, and how this may serve – or hinder – the mission dei. How does spiritual accompaniment as a practice and a process need to change to challenge such disparities of power and to liberate itself from unconscious collusion with the status quo?","PeriodicalId":45928,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Beliefs & Values-Studies in Religion & Education","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.1,"publicationDate":"2022-01-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"89345200","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"哲学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-01-05DOI: 10.1080/13617672.2021.2018215
Humeyra Guleryuz Erken, Leslie J. Francis, Ursula Mckenna
ABSTRACT The connection between religious affect and self-esteem has been supported by a series of studies conducted among Christian or post-Christian samples. The present study extends this research tradition among a sample of 919 self-identified Muslim adolescents (between the ages of 11 and 14 years) attending schools in England. The data demonstrated that, after controlling for personal factors (age and sex) and for psychological factors (extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism), there was a significant positive association between the two core variables (religious affect and self-esteem). From the perspective of the empirical psychology of religion this study confirms among a Muslim sample a finding previously recorded among Christian or post-Christian samples.
{"title":"Love for Allah and love for self: exploring the connection between religious affect and self-esteem among Muslim adolescents in England","authors":"Humeyra Guleryuz Erken, Leslie J. Francis, Ursula Mckenna","doi":"10.1080/13617672.2021.2018215","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2021.2018215","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT The connection between religious affect and self-esteem has been supported by a series of studies conducted among Christian or post-Christian samples. The present study extends this research tradition among a sample of 919 self-identified Muslim adolescents (between the ages of 11 and 14 years) attending schools in England. The data demonstrated that, after controlling for personal factors (age and sex) and for psychological factors (extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism), there was a significant positive association between the two core variables (religious affect and self-esteem). From the perspective of the empirical psychology of religion this study confirms among a Muslim sample a finding previously recorded among Christian or post-Christian samples.","PeriodicalId":45928,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Beliefs & Values-Studies in Religion & Education","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.1,"publicationDate":"2022-01-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"78969702","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"哲学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-01-02DOI: 10.1080/13617672.2022.2005753
F. Stewart
ABSTRACT This article closes a Special Section of Journal of Beliefs and Values focusing on new directions in the study of Implicit Religion. It points to a new way forward for Implicit Religion working within the framework for religion and worldviews proposed by the Commission on Religious Education in 2018.
{"title":"Implicit religion: afterword to the special issue","authors":"F. Stewart","doi":"10.1080/13617672.2022.2005753","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2022.2005753","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT This article closes a Special Section of Journal of Beliefs and Values focusing on new directions in the study of Implicit Religion. It points to a new way forward for Implicit Religion working within the framework for religion and worldviews proposed by the Commission on Religious Education in 2018.","PeriodicalId":45928,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Beliefs & Values-Studies in Religion & Education","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.1,"publicationDate":"2022-01-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"80892502","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"哲学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-01-02DOI: 10.1080/13617672.2022.2005722
Lucy Spoliar
ABSTRACT This article explores how Implicit Religion might be operationalised in research on popular culture, and specifically on the British TV sitcom. This discussion understands comedy and satire as powerful tools for articulating and contesting stereotypical designations of identity and power within a particular cultural and sociopolitical framework. Where religious characters appear in British TV sitcoms, they are often portrayed as anomalous, hinting at the assumed ‘implicit secularity’ of the audience. However, in the British context, it can be difficult to disentangle religion and the secular. Taking The Vicar of Dibley (1994 to 1998) and Citizen Khan (2012 to 2016) as case studies, this article compares portrayals of Christian and Muslim communities in British TV sitcoms. This facilitates a discussion of certain double standards in terms of the ways in which these two religious traditions are represented, and what is satirised and ‘taken seriously’ in each case. These double standards are examined with reference to historical differences in status between Christianity and Islam in the British context. This article lays the groundwork for further research on the ways in which humour in popular culture enhances our understanding of operations of Implicit Religion in relation to power within a particular national context.
{"title":"Learning from laughter: Implicit Religion, satire, and power in two British TV situation comedies","authors":"Lucy Spoliar","doi":"10.1080/13617672.2022.2005722","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2022.2005722","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT This article explores how Implicit Religion might be operationalised in research on popular culture, and specifically on the British TV sitcom. This discussion understands comedy and satire as powerful tools for articulating and contesting stereotypical designations of identity and power within a particular cultural and sociopolitical framework. Where religious characters appear in British TV sitcoms, they are often portrayed as anomalous, hinting at the assumed ‘implicit secularity’ of the audience. However, in the British context, it can be difficult to disentangle religion and the secular. Taking The Vicar of Dibley (1994 to 1998) and Citizen Khan (2012 to 2016) as case studies, this article compares portrayals of Christian and Muslim communities in British TV sitcoms. This facilitates a discussion of certain double standards in terms of the ways in which these two religious traditions are represented, and what is satirised and ‘taken seriously’ in each case. These double standards are examined with reference to historical differences in status between Christianity and Islam in the British context. This article lays the groundwork for further research on the ways in which humour in popular culture enhances our understanding of operations of Implicit Religion in relation to power within a particular national context.","PeriodicalId":45928,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Beliefs & Values-Studies in Religion & Education","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":1.1,"publicationDate":"2022-01-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"79170220","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"哲学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2022-01-02DOI: 10.1080/13617672.2022.2005713
Ipsita Chatterjea
ABSTRACT The work of Black women scholars and the lives of Black women demand a revisit of Lynch’s notion of sacrality and Bailey’s axioms of Implicit Religion. In-group appropriation via the case study of Fanny Jackson Coppin and Black Methodist women in the USA renders visible religious labour or vocation, leadership, and expertise of women. An extension of Altglas, in group appropriation illustrates how they were received, characterised, regulated, and ‘remade’ through structures optimised for this end. To look at labour as a mode of religious agency among the underrepresented demands that we revisit agency and expertise within structures, and who is credited with the development of religious social aggregations. In-group appropriation shows how these routinised presumptions on the labour and expertise of these women with stylised gendered notions of credit occur; how organisations and movements change, and how women assert themselves and bring about change.
黑人女性学者的工作和黑人女性的生活要求我们重新审视林奇的神圣观念和贝利的隐性宗教公理。通过对Fanny Jackson Coppin和美国黑人卫理公会妇女的案例研究，群体内占有展现了妇女的宗教劳动或职业、领导能力和专业知识。altglass的延伸，在群体拨款中说明了它们是如何通过优化的结构被接收、表征、调节和“重塑”的。要把劳动看作是在未被充分代表的群体中的一种宗教代理模式，我们需要重新审视结构中的代理和专业知识，以及谁被认为是宗教社会群体发展的推动者。群体内挪用显示了这些对这些具有程式化的性别信贷观念的女性的劳动和专业知识的常规假设是如何发生的;组织和运动如何变化，以及女性如何维护自己并带来变化。
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