Pub Date : 2020-01-02DOI: 10.1080/07341512.2020.1739816
J. Tarr
ABSTRACT During the nineteenth century American cities transitioned from offering minimal services to providing services through networked infrastructures. Among these were street lights fueled largely by coal gas produced by manufactured gas plants and distributed by pipe line and later by electricity, both arc and incandescent. Because of fuel and construction costs, manufactured gas was expensive and uneven, and gas networks were confined to business sectors and affluent neighborhoods. To provide light to dark neighborhoods and suburbs, off-grid stand-alone technologies unconnected to a piped or wired network often supplied illumination. The most common of these were fueled by gasoline and naphtha, byproducts of petroleum distillation aiming primarily to produce kerosene. This pattern was present in many American cities and towns in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Thus, the case of stand-alone gasoline and naphtha street lights presents an important variation to the advance of the networked city.
{"title":"Illuminating the streets, alleys, parks and suburbs of the American City: non-networked technologies, 1870-1920","authors":"J. Tarr","doi":"10.1080/07341512.2020.1739816","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/07341512.2020.1739816","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT During the nineteenth century American cities transitioned from offering minimal services to providing services through networked infrastructures. Among these were street lights fueled largely by coal gas produced by manufactured gas plants and distributed by pipe line and later by electricity, both arc and incandescent. Because of fuel and construction costs, manufactured gas was expensive and uneven, and gas networks were confined to business sectors and affluent neighborhoods. To provide light to dark neighborhoods and suburbs, off-grid stand-alone technologies unconnected to a piped or wired network often supplied illumination. The most common of these were fueled by gasoline and naphtha, byproducts of petroleum distillation aiming primarily to produce kerosene. This pattern was present in many American cities and towns in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Thus, the case of stand-alone gasoline and naphtha street lights presents an important variation to the advance of the networked city.","PeriodicalId":45996,"journal":{"name":"History and Technology","volume":"22 1","pages":"105 - 128"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2020-01-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"83210587","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-10-02DOI: 10.1080/07341512.2019.1694125
Dominic J. Berry
ABSTRACT This paper pursues the history of biology and technology in tandem. It focuses on DNA’s materiality regardless of informational properties. My emphasis on ‘making’ integrates attention to cultures of work in material histories of biology with analyses of the development of technical apparatuses and machines. When it comes to the history of DNA synthesis our materials are as much chemical as they are biological, which means that there is really a third history present, one that also needs to be drawn in, but on its own terms. I demonstrate the ways in which different chemistries have been combined with different technologies, all together affording different arrangements of personnel and biological science. It is a history of how synthesised DNA first came to be, became desired, and became a commodity, available for inclusion in a wide variety of experiments and experimental systems. This method could be replicated for other ‘experimental commodities’.
{"title":"Making DNA and its becoming an experimental commodity","authors":"Dominic J. Berry","doi":"10.1080/07341512.2019.1694125","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/07341512.2019.1694125","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT This paper pursues the history of biology and technology in tandem. It focuses on DNA’s materiality regardless of informational properties. My emphasis on ‘making’ integrates attention to cultures of work in material histories of biology with analyses of the development of technical apparatuses and machines. When it comes to the history of DNA synthesis our materials are as much chemical as they are biological, which means that there is really a third history present, one that also needs to be drawn in, but on its own terms. I demonstrate the ways in which different chemistries have been combined with different technologies, all together affording different arrangements of personnel and biological science. It is a history of how synthesised DNA first came to be, became desired, and became a commodity, available for inclusion in a wide variety of experiments and experimental systems. This method could be replicated for other ‘experimental commodities’.","PeriodicalId":45996,"journal":{"name":"History and Technology","volume":"110 1","pages":"374 - 404"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2019-10-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"79262703","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-10-02DOI: 10.1080/07341512.2019.1694127
Victoria Lee
ABSTRACT In 1960, the trajectory of aflatoxin as one of the earliest and best studied cases of a naturally occurring carcinogen in food intersected with the trajectory of an industrial microbe known in the Japanese vernacular as kōji, used for centuries in Japan to make sake, soy sauce, and miso. Over about two decades, the aflatoxin crisis spurred the emergence of a new evolutionary narrative of kōji, Aspergillus oryzae, as a domesticated, non-toxigenic species unique to the Japanese brewery that was clearly distinguishable from its wild, commonly found in nature, and aflatoxin-producing close relative, Aspergillus flavus. It was a shift that came hand-in-hand with the reconstruction of kōji classification. This essay examines the challenges of microbial classification after 1960. By asking how mycologists made a scientific narrative that originated in the interests of Japanese national industries convincing internationally, it explores the knowledge infrastructure that underlay both manufacturing issues and knowledge in microbiology.
{"title":"Wild toxicity, cultivated safety: aflatoxin and kōji classification as knowledge infrastructure","authors":"Victoria Lee","doi":"10.1080/07341512.2019.1694127","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/07341512.2019.1694127","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT In 1960, the trajectory of aflatoxin as one of the earliest and best studied cases of a naturally occurring carcinogen in food intersected with the trajectory of an industrial microbe known in the Japanese vernacular as kōji, used for centuries in Japan to make sake, soy sauce, and miso. Over about two decades, the aflatoxin crisis spurred the emergence of a new evolutionary narrative of kōji, Aspergillus oryzae, as a domesticated, non-toxigenic species unique to the Japanese brewery that was clearly distinguishable from its wild, commonly found in nature, and aflatoxin-producing close relative, Aspergillus flavus. It was a shift that came hand-in-hand with the reconstruction of kōji classification. This essay examines the challenges of microbial classification after 1960. By asking how mycologists made a scientific narrative that originated in the interests of Japanese national industries convincing internationally, it explores the knowledge infrastructure that underlay both manufacturing issues and knowledge in microbiology.","PeriodicalId":45996,"journal":{"name":"History and Technology","volume":"84 1","pages":"405 - 424"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2019-10-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"86905241","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-10-02DOI: 10.1080/07341512.2019.1694124
Vivian Ling, Lijing Jiang
ABSTRACT In the 1950s, the studies of proteins through their synthesis captured the attention of a number of biochemists. Among teams that set out to chemically synthesize the protein insulin, a large team in the People’s Republic of China achieved success in 1966, months before the Cultural Revolution. By focusing on the ideological refashioning, material arrangement, and organizational style of the project, this paper addresses the political and material dimensions of the project, especially how it was reconstructed as an engineering project in-between biology and chemistry for the young republic. This case was different from the design rationales demonstrated in both American and German cases, in which insulin synthesis was viewed as either a challenging problem for biochemistry or primary research toward making synthetic fibers. The process reveals a fluid topography of the material, social, and political space that a group of biochemists could work with in socialist China.
{"title":"A different kind of synthesis: artificial synthesis of insulin in socialist China","authors":"Vivian Ling, Lijing Jiang","doi":"10.1080/07341512.2019.1694124","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/07341512.2019.1694124","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT In the 1950s, the studies of proteins through their synthesis captured the attention of a number of biochemists. Among teams that set out to chemically synthesize the protein insulin, a large team in the People’s Republic of China achieved success in 1966, months before the Cultural Revolution. By focusing on the ideological refashioning, material arrangement, and organizational style of the project, this paper addresses the political and material dimensions of the project, especially how it was reconstructed as an engineering project in-between biology and chemistry for the young republic. This case was different from the design rationales demonstrated in both American and German cases, in which insulin synthesis was viewed as either a challenging problem for biochemistry or primary research toward making synthetic fibers. The process reveals a fluid topography of the material, social, and political space that a group of biochemists could work with in socialist China.","PeriodicalId":45996,"journal":{"name":"History and Technology","volume":"202 1","pages":"453 - 480"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2019-10-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"74327285","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-10-02DOI: 10.1080/07341512.2019.1694259
K. Rader
My first book, Making Mice,1 chronicled the development of the genetically standardized mouse – and in its title, the use of the word ‘making’ was deliberate. Not only did it fulfill my publisher’s...
{"title":"Introduction to the special issue Biology and Technology Reframed: historiographical reflections and opportunities","authors":"K. Rader","doi":"10.1080/07341512.2019.1694259","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/07341512.2019.1694259","url":null,"abstract":"My first book, Making Mice,1 chronicled the development of the genetically standardized mouse – and in its title, the use of the word ‘making’ was deliberate. Not only did it fulfill my publisher’s...","PeriodicalId":45996,"journal":{"name":"History and Technology","volume":"6 1","pages":"366 - 373"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2019-10-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"81690598","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-10-02DOI: 10.1080/07341512.2019.1695444
A. Slaton, Tiago Saraiva
This special issue represents the first half of a collaboration between History+Technology and the Journal of the History of Biology. JHB co-editor Karen Rader has guest edited this issue of H + T, and in the coming months we will in turn present a set of articles in a special issue of JHB. The editors of both journals are excited to test the possibility that challenging familiar topical commitments can bring new criticality to all. As we see it, this collaboration does more than historicize the engineering/science binary. Rather, it suggests that these two categories themselves enact historical projects like resource extraction, capitalism, socialism, the making of states, the making of life. When practical endeavors generally seen as ‘engineering’ are demarcated analytically from conceptual processes seen as ‘scientific discovery’ or ‘-research’ those historical projects, and their social origins and impacts, are easily obscured. To make histories of technology and biology–in all their institutional, political, material and corporeal expressions–accountable to one another is, we think, to make them accountable to history more generally. Finally, not least among our reasons for swapping editorial labor in this way: we are thrilled to bring the readers of H + T a sampling of JHB’s ambitious analytical reach, and later, to introduce JHB readers to the historiographic aims, and disruptions, ofH + T. We hope to see these two special issues shared widely within and beyond their familiar disciplinary homes, yielding new audiences, and new questions, for both.
{"title":"Editors’ note","authors":"A. Slaton, Tiago Saraiva","doi":"10.1080/07341512.2019.1695444","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/07341512.2019.1695444","url":null,"abstract":"This special issue represents the first half of a collaboration between History+Technology and the Journal of the History of Biology. JHB co-editor Karen Rader has guest edited this issue of H + T, and in the coming months we will in turn present a set of articles in a special issue of JHB. The editors of both journals are excited to test the possibility that challenging familiar topical commitments can bring new criticality to all. As we see it, this collaboration does more than historicize the engineering/science binary. Rather, it suggests that these two categories themselves enact historical projects like resource extraction, capitalism, socialism, the making of states, the making of life. When practical endeavors generally seen as ‘engineering’ are demarcated analytically from conceptual processes seen as ‘scientific discovery’ or ‘-research’ those historical projects, and their social origins and impacts, are easily obscured. To make histories of technology and biology–in all their institutional, political, material and corporeal expressions–accountable to one another is, we think, to make them accountable to history more generally. Finally, not least among our reasons for swapping editorial labor in this way: we are thrilled to bring the readers of H + T a sampling of JHB’s ambitious analytical reach, and later, to introduce JHB readers to the historiographic aims, and disruptions, ofH + T. We hope to see these two special issues shared widely within and beyond their familiar disciplinary homes, yielding new audiences, and new questions, for both.","PeriodicalId":45996,"journal":{"name":"History and Technology","volume":"30 1","pages":"365 - 365"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2019-10-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"73343430","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-07-03DOI: 10.1080/07341512.2019.1680151
M. Webel
ABSTRACT As sleeping sickness appeared in epidemics across Africa c. 1900, it stimulated a race among colonial medical personnel and Europe-based scientists to discover its causative pathogen, its mode of transmission, and, ideally, a cure. Scientists circulated between hubs of research in Europe and key field sites in Africa, monitoring each other’s progress and often maintaining long-term relationships colored by collaboration and competition. The Lake Victoria littoral was an epicenter of both significant mortality and important research before WWI. This article explores the intellectual implications of colonial connectivity at local scale, focusing on changing ideas about sleeping sickness, the communication of research strategies and methods, and the circumstances of life and research in this imperial hinterland and colonial borderland in eastern Africa. Exploring research dynamics around Lake Victoria illuminates the inadequacies of colonial scientific and medical capabilities and both the generative and limiting aspects that the contingencies of colonial research created.
{"title":"Trypanosomiasis, tropical medicine, and the practices of inter-colonial research at Lake Victoria, 1902-07","authors":"M. Webel","doi":"10.1080/07341512.2019.1680151","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/07341512.2019.1680151","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT As sleeping sickness appeared in epidemics across Africa c. 1900, it stimulated a race among colonial medical personnel and Europe-based scientists to discover its causative pathogen, its mode of transmission, and, ideally, a cure. Scientists circulated between hubs of research in Europe and key field sites in Africa, monitoring each other’s progress and often maintaining long-term relationships colored by collaboration and competition. The Lake Victoria littoral was an epicenter of both significant mortality and important research before WWI. This article explores the intellectual implications of colonial connectivity at local scale, focusing on changing ideas about sleeping sickness, the communication of research strategies and methods, and the circumstances of life and research in this imperial hinterland and colonial borderland in eastern Africa. Exploring research dynamics around Lake Victoria illuminates the inadequacies of colonial scientific and medical capabilities and both the generative and limiting aspects that the contingencies of colonial research created.","PeriodicalId":45996,"journal":{"name":"History and Technology","volume":"54 1","pages":"266 - 292"},"PeriodicalIF":1.2,"publicationDate":"2019-07-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"90827345","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"历史学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2019-07-03DOI: 10.1080/07341512.2019.1680153
T. Ventura
ABSTRACT The 1946 Bataan Rice Enrichment Project illuminates the intimate connections between Euro-American empire, scientific nationalism, and post-war demonstration in the Philippines. The project was conducted by former American colonial chemist turned philanthropist Robert R. Williams, who sought to prove the efficacy of synthetic-thiamine fortified rice in the fight against beriberi. Yet by willfully exposing half of Bataan’s food scarce residents to beriberi, Williams effectively recreated the prisons and asylums that Euro-American researchers had used as living laboratories to induce beriberi in unwilling subjects. These ‘carceral laboratories’ were highly contested by the people imprisoned within and by nationalist Philippine physicians who understood deficiency disease as a symptom of colonialism. Returning the carceral laboratory to the making of nutritional science explains the post-war Philippine rejection of mandatory rice fortification and is a reminder that the Asian countryside was a creation of colonial modernity and a contested space long before the Cold War.
1946年的巴丹稻米浓缩计划揭示了欧美帝国、科学民族主义和战后菲律宾示威之间的密切联系。该项目由前美国殖民地化学家罗伯特·r·威廉姆斯(Robert R. Williams)主持，他后来成为慈善家，试图证明合成硫胺素强化大米在对抗脚气病方面的功效。然而，威廉姆斯故意让一半食物匮乏的巴丹岛居民接触脚气病，有效地重现了欧美研究人员用来在不情愿的受试者身上诱发脚气病的生活实验室——监狱和收容所。这些"监狱实验室"受到被监禁的人民和民族主义菲律宾医生的强烈反对，他们认为缺乏症是殖民主义的症状。将carceral实验室回归到营养科学的研究中，解释了战后菲律宾拒绝强制强化大米的原因，并提醒人们，早在冷战之前，亚洲农村就是殖民现代性的产物，是一个有争议的空间。
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Pub Date : 2019-07-03DOI: 10.1080/07341512.2019.1680141
A. Jansen, J. Krige, Jessica Wang
From the mid-nineteenth century onwards, the mobilization of knowledge as an adjunct to modern state power became essential to imperial projects worldwide. As traditional empires consolidated colonial rule by backing administrative legal structures with coercive policing and military force, they found that legitimacy also called for legibility. The gathering and creation of information about local custom and habit, indigenous structures of power and productive practices that could be ‘improved’, resources that could be exploited – such forms of knowledge facilitated governance, whether by engaging local elites in the colonial project, displacing and supplanting existing structures of political authority, extending systems of surveillance and control, or otherwise expanding the reach of imperial rule. Empires combined hard with soft power, producing a cohort of trained imperial agents in metropolitan institutions – universities, foundations, and, in the post-WorldWar II period, international organizations, think tanks –whose fieldwork aided the projection of power abroad. Our mutual interests in science, nation-building, the movement of knowledge, and the global dimensions of power (whether in national or colonial contexts, or the blurred boundaries between the two) have brought the editors of this special issue together to reflect upon the twentieth-century history of knowledge and empire. In particular, we take inter-imperial collaboration as our organizing theme, in order to explore the extent to which the global project of empire rested upon, and even required, interchange and joint action among colonial powers. As Anne L. Foster has noted, studies of imperialism have generally confined themselves to the colonizer-colonized dyad, and the scholarly literature has only just begun to consider the forms of collaboration between empires that shaped the age of high imperialism. This volume foregrounds inter-imperial relations as a framework for understanding global movements of science, technology, and expertise. It moves beyond our earlier concerns with nineteenth-century US nation-building, and twentieth-century nation-building worldwide, to engage in an ongoing reassessment of the place of the Cold War in our historical imagination, this time focused on the production, circulation, and inter-imperial sharing of expert knowledge at diverse sites from the late nineteenth century into the 1960s. Multiple forms of inter-imperial collaboration operated in tandem with the political rivalries that so often marked the Age of Empire. Imperial governments found that they
从19世纪中期开始，作为现代国家权力的附属物，知识的动员成为帝国在世界范围内计划的关键。传统的帝国通过强制治安和军事力量支持行政法律结构来巩固殖民统治，他们发现合法性也需要可读性。收集和创造有关当地习俗和习惯的信息，可以“改进”的当地权力结构和生产实践，可以利用的资源-这种形式的知识促进了治理，无论是通过让当地精英参与殖民项目，取代和取代现有的政治权威结构，扩展监视和控制系统，还是以其他方式扩大帝国统治的范围。帝国将硬实力与软实力相结合，在大都市机构——大学、基金会，以及二战后的国际组织和智库——培养出一批训练有素的帝国特工，他们的实地工作有助于向海外投射权力。我们在科学、国家建设、知识运动和权力的全球维度(无论是在国家或殖民背景下，还是两者之间模糊的界限)方面的共同利益，使本期特刊的编辑们聚集在一起，反思20世纪的知识和帝国的历史。特别是，我们将帝国间的合作作为我们的组织主题，以探索帝国的全球计划在多大程度上依赖于，甚至需要殖民大国之间的交流和联合行动。正如安妮·l·福斯特(Anne L. Foster)所指出的，对帝国主义的研究通常局限于殖民者和被殖民者的二元关系，学术文献才刚刚开始考虑帝国之间的合作形式，这些合作形式塑造了高度帝国主义的时代。这卷前景帝国关系作为一个框架，了解科学，技术和专业知识的全球运动。它超越了我们对19世纪美国国家建设和20世纪全球国家建设的早期关注，参与对冷战在我们历史想象中的位置的持续重新评估，这一次集中在19世纪末到20世纪60年代不同地点的专家知识的生产，流通和帝国间共享。多种形式的帝国内部合作与政治竞争相辅相成，这往往是帝国时代的标志。帝国政府发现他们
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Pub Date : 2019-07-03DOI: 10.1080/07341512.2019.1680148
Mark Hendrickson
ABSTRACT In the late nineteenth century, American mining engineers and geologists fanned out to potential or existing mines around the world. This paper examines the work of George F. Becker—a forty-year veteran of the United States Geological Survey—in South Africa and the Philippines during the 1890s. Becker’s work on the world above and below ground provided a diverse audience with direct observations of attempted empire building underway and helped to reorganize the world of American imperial imagination in a way that used British experience in South Africa to explain and justify U.S. efforts to displace Spain in the Philippines. He derived his authority both from the knowledge he generated about minerals and geological formations underground and from the experience he garnered as one of the only Americans to observe these two empire building projects underway on two continents in this critical period of economic, political and foreign policy upheaval.
19世纪末，美国的采矿工程师和地质学家分散到世界各地潜在的或现有的矿山。本文考察了乔治·f·贝克(George F. becker)在19世纪90年代在南非和菲律宾的工作——他是美国地质调查局(United States Geological survey)工作了40年的老兵。贝克尔对地上和地下世界的研究为不同的读者提供了对正在进行的帝国建设尝试的直接观察，并帮助重组了美国帝国想象中的世界，用英国在南非的经验来解释和证明美国在菲律宾取代西班牙的努力是正确的。他的权威来自于他对地下矿物和地质构造的知识，以及他作为唯一一个在经济、政治和外交政策动荡的关键时期观察两个大陆上正在进行的两个帝国建设项目的美国人所获得的经验。
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