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Real payment priming to reduce potential hypothetical bias 真实支付启动,以减少潜在的假设偏见
IF 2.4 3区 经济学 Q1 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-12-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.jocm.2022.100383
Qi Jiang , Jerrod Penn , Wuyang Hu

Stated Preference (SP) valuation methods are often challenged by the existence of Hypothetical Bias (HB), often as individuals overstating their willingness to pay for a good or service in a hypothetical elicitation. A relatively new method shown to effectively reduce this upward bias is priming. However, these existing priming methods rely on relatively lengthy word or sentence tasks in order to prime respondents. Such tasks are costly in terms of survey time and participant effort, resulting in cognitive overload with benefits limited only to the elicitation. We propose a “real payment priming” method, which takes advantage of a real valuation, where actual payment would occur, prior to a hypothetical valuation. Results show that priming through real payment on one good effectively reduces potential HB in the subsequent hypothetical valuation on another good. Our method enables a wider scope of applications particularly when researchers have multiple valuation tasks, obviating the need for an extra priming task, or that the two goods are identical or similar.

陈述偏好(SP)评估方法经常受到假设偏差(HB)存在的挑战,通常是个体在假设的启发中夸大了他们为商品或服务付费的意愿。一种相对较新的方法显示,有效地减少这种向上的偏见是启动。然而,这些现有的启动方法依赖于相对较长的单词或句子任务来启动应答者。这样的任务在调查时间和参与者的努力方面是昂贵的,导致认知过载,其好处仅限于启发。我们提出了一种“真实支付启动”方法,该方法利用了真实估值,实际支付将在假设估值之前发生。结果表明,通过对一种商品进行实际支付的启动有效地降低了对另一种商品后续假设估值的潜在HB。我们的方法具有更广泛的应用范围,特别是当研究人员有多个评估任务时,避免了额外启动任务的需要,或者两个商品相同或相似。
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引用次数: 1
Seen but not considered? Awareness and consideration in choice analysis 看到了却不考虑?选择分析中的意识和考虑
IF 2.4 3区 经济学 Q1 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-12-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.jocm.2022.100375
Anna Kristina Edenbrandt , Carl-Johan Lagerkvist , Malte Lüken , Jacob L. Orquin

Consideration set formation (CSF) is a two-stage decision process in which people first select a subset of products to consider and then evaluate and choose from the selected subset of products. CSF models typically use stated consideration or infer it from choice data probabilistically. This study explores CSF by means of eye-tracking and evaluates how measures of visual consideration compare to stated consideration. We develop a model of CSF behavior, where stated and visual consideration are embedded in the specification of the utility function. We propose three different measures of visual consideration and show that one third of respondents (∼34%) use CSF behavior and that stated consideration diverges substantially from visual consideration. Surprisingly, many product types stated as not considered receive more visual attention, not less. Our findings suggest that stated consideration may be in part a measure of preferences rather than of consideration, implying concerns with endogeneity when including stated consideration data in choice models. Accounting for CSF in discrete choice analysis increases our understanding of the decision process, and can target concerns with biased estimates when analyzing data from two-stage decision processes.

考虑集形成(CSF)是一个两阶段的决策过程,在这个过程中,人们首先选择一个产品子集来考虑,然后从选择的产品子集中进行评估和选择。CSF模型通常使用声明的考虑或从选择数据概率推断。本研究通过眼动追踪来探索脑脊液,并评估视觉考虑与陈述考虑的测量方法。我们开发了CSF行为模型,其中陈述和视觉考虑嵌入到效用函数的规范中。我们提出了三种不同的视觉考虑措施,并表明三分之一的受访者(约34%)使用CSF行为,并且所述的考虑与视觉考虑有很大差异。令人惊讶的是,许多未被考虑的产品类型得到了更多的视觉关注,而不是更少。我们的研究结果表明,陈述性考虑可能在一定程度上是偏好的衡量标准,而不是考虑因素,这意味着在选择模型中包括陈述性考虑数据时,对内生性的关注。在离散选择分析中考虑CSF增加了我们对决策过程的理解,并且在分析两阶段决策过程的数据时可以针对有偏见的估计。
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引用次数: 2
Stated choice analysis of preferences for COVID-19 vaccines using the Choquet integral 使用Choquet积分对COVID-19疫苗偏好进行陈述选择分析
IF 2.4 3区 经济学 Q1 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-12-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.jocm.2022.100385
Rico Krueger , Ricardo A. Daziano

We investigate preferences for COVID-19 vaccines using data from a stated choice survey conducted in the US in March 2021. To analyse the data, we embed the Choquet integral, a flexible aggregation operator for capturing attribute interactions under monotonicity constraints, into a mixed logit model. We find that effectiveness is the most important vaccine attribute, followed by risk of severe side effects and protection period. The attribute interactions reveal that non-pecuniary vaccine attributes are synergistic. Out-of-pocket costs are independent of effectiveness, incubation period, and mild side effects but exhibit moderate synergistic interactions with other attributes. Vaccine adoption is significantly more likely among individuals who identify as male, have obtained a bachelor’s degree or a higher level of education, have a high household income, support the democratic party, had COVID-19, got vaccinated against the flu in winter 2020/21, and have an underlying health condition.

我们使用2021年3月在美国进行的一项声明选择调查的数据来调查对COVID-19疫苗的偏好。为了分析数据,我们将Choquet积分嵌入到混合logit模型中,Choquet积分是一种灵活的聚合算子,用于捕获单调性约束下的属性交互。我们发现有效性是疫苗最重要的属性,其次是严重副作用的风险和保护期。属性相互作用表明非金钱疫苗属性具有协同作用。自付费用与有效性、潜伏期和轻微副作用无关,但与其他属性表现出适度的协同相互作用。在男性、获得学士学位或更高教育水平、家庭收入高、支持民主党、感染COVID-19、在2020/21冬季接种过流感疫苗、有潜在健康状况的人群中,接种疫苗的可能性要大得多。
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引用次数: 0
Decision Field Theory: Equivalence with probit models and guidance for identifiability 决策场理论:与probit模型的等价性和可辨识性的指导
IF 2.4 3区 经济学 Q1 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-12-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.jocm.2022.100358
Teodóra Szép, Sander van Cranenburgh, Caspar G. Chorus

We examine identifiability and distinguishability in Decision Field Theory (DFT) models and highlight pitfalls and how to avoid them. In the past literature, the models’ parameters have been put forward as being able to capture the psychological processes in a decision maker’s mind during deliberation. DFT models have been widely used to analyse human decision making behaviour, and many empirical applications in the choice modelling domain rely solely on data concerning the observed final choice. This raises the question if such data are rich enough to allow for the identification of the model’s parameters. Insight into identifiability and distinguishability is crucial as it allows the researcher to determine which behavioural and psychological conclusions can or cannot be drawn from the estimated DFT model and how a DFT model can be specified in such a way that resulting parameters have meaningful interpretations. In this paper, we address this issue. To do this, we first show which specifications of DFT are equivalent to conventional probit models. Then, building on this equivalence result, we apply established analytical methods to highlight and explain the identification and distinguishability issues that arise when estimating DFT models on conventional choice data. We find evidence that some of the DFT models’ special cases suffer from identifiability issues. Our results warrant caution when DFT models are used to infer psychological processes and human behaviour from conventional choice data, and they help researchers choose the correct specification of DFT models.

我们研究了决策场理论(DFT)模型中的可识别性和可区分性,并强调了陷阱以及如何避免它们。在过去的文献中,模型的参数被提出为能够捕捉决策者在审议过程中的心理过程。DFT模型已被广泛用于分析人类的决策行为,在选择建模领域的许多经验应用仅依赖于有关观察到的最终选择的数据。这就提出了这样一个问题:这样的数据是否足够丰富,可以用来识别模型的参数。对可识别性和可区分性的洞察是至关重要的,因为它允许研究人员确定哪些行为和心理结论可以或不能从估计的DFT模型中得出,以及如何以这样一种方式指定DFT模型,从而使结果参数具有有意义的解释。在本文中,我们解决了这个问题。为了做到这一点,我们首先展示哪些DFT规范等同于传统的probit模型。然后,在此等价结果的基础上,我们应用已建立的分析方法来强调和解释在传统选择数据上估计DFT模型时出现的识别和可区分性问题。我们发现一些DFT模型的特殊情况存在可识别性问题。当使用DFT模型从传统的选择数据中推断心理过程和人类行为时,我们的结果值得谨慎,它们有助于研究人员选择正确的DFT模型规格。
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引用次数: 0
Preference reversal: Analysis using construal level theory that incorporates discounting 偏好反转:使用包含贴现的解释水平理论进行分析
IF 2.4 3区 经济学 Q1 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-12-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.jocm.2022.100384
Makoto Abe , Mitsuru Kaneko

According to the behavioral decision theory, time discounting is often used to explain preference reversals. However, the discounting theory fails to explain some types of preference reversals. Furthermore, preference reversals are limited to those along the time axis (i.e., temporal distance). To extend our knowledge of preference reversals in various choice contexts, this study constructs an analytical framework that combines the time discounting notion of behavioral decision theory and construal level theory developed in social psychology. We put forward three propositions for discounting: magnitude effect (the higher the construal level, the smaller the discounting rate), sign effect (the discounting rate is smaller for losses than for gains), and generalization of distance (discounting applies not only to temporal distance but also to psychological distances such as social distance). These propositions were validated in two studies. In Study 1, we conducted a series of three experiments on a lottery choice task using two samples of respondents (i.e., students and a web panel). In Study 2, we estimated the discounting rates of the higher and lower construal levels by employing multiple intertemporal choice tasks. While many choices involve trade-offs among attributes, the effects of changes in psychological distances are not clear. However, by identifying whether these attributes evoke high or low construal levels and whether the aspects are related to gains or losses, our approach greatly facilitates the analysis of how evaluation and preference are affected by psychological distance, and consequently, that of preference reversal behavior.

根据行为决策理论,时间折现经常被用来解释偏好逆转。然而,贴现理论无法解释某些类型的偏好逆转。此外,偏好逆转仅限于沿着时间轴(即时间距离)的那些。本研究将行为决策理论中的时间折现概念与社会心理学中的解释水平理论相结合,构建了一个分析框架,以扩展我们对不同选择情境下偏好逆转的认识。我们提出了三个关于折现的命题:幅度效应(解释水平越高,折现率越小)、符号效应(损失的折现率比收益的折现率小)和距离泛化(折现不仅适用于时间距离,也适用于社会距离等心理距离)。这些命题在两项研究中得到了证实。在研究1中,我们使用两个受访者样本(即学生和网络面板)进行了一系列关于彩票选择任务的三个实验。在研究2中,我们通过使用多个跨期选择任务来估计较高和较低解释水平的贴现率。虽然许多选择涉及属性之间的权衡,但心理距离变化的影响尚不清楚。然而,通过确定这些属性是否会引起高或低的解释水平,以及这些方面是否与收益或损失有关,我们的方法极大地促进了评估和偏好如何受到心理距离的影响,从而促进了偏好逆转行为的分析。
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引用次数: 0
The value of consideration data in a discrete choice experiment 离散选择实验中对价数据的价值
IF 2.4 3区 经济学 Q1 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-12-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.jocm.2022.100374
Samson Yaekob Assele , Michel Meulders , Martina Vandebroek

In stated preference surveys, data regarding the considered alternatives is sometimes collected prior to the preferred alternative. When the chosen alternative is not in the stated consideration set, the consideration data is inconsistent with the choice data. Several modeling approaches have been used in such situations. Some researchers ignore the consideration data and assume all alternatives are considered. Others only use the consistent choice data and delete the inconsistent observations. The most intricate methods use a latent consideration set formation approach in modeling the choice process. We extend the latent consideration set formation model to incorporate the stated consideration data but allow for inconsistencies in consideration and choice data, and allow for individual-level heterogeneity in the consideration and the choice process. We compare the recovery of the mean population preference parameters of our model with the existing approaches through simulation. The results show that if there is a similar effect of the attributes in both the consideration phase and the choice phase, the mixed logit model is not outperformed by the two-stage models. In contrast, when there is a sufficiently different effect of attributes in the consideration and the choice phase, two-stage models can recover the mean population preference parameters better than the mixed logit model. Furthermore, we can conclude that having stated consideration data barely improves the recovery of the mean preference parameters compared to a latent consideration set choice model that only uses choice data. Finally, we illustrate the models using empirical data about preferences for mobile phones.

在声明偏好调查中,有时在首选选项之前收集有关所考虑的选项的数据。当选择的备选方案不在声明的考虑集中时,考虑数据与选择数据不一致。在这种情况下已经使用了几种建模方法。一些研究人员忽略了考虑数据,并假设考虑了所有的替代方案。其他人只使用一致的选择数据,并删除不一致的观察结果。最复杂的方法是在建模选择过程中使用潜在考虑集形成方法。我们扩展了潜在考虑集形成模型,以纳入陈述的考虑数据,但允许考虑和选择数据中的不一致性,并允许考虑和选择过程中的个人层面异质性。通过仿真比较了该模型与现有方法的平均总体偏好参数的恢复情况。结果表明,如果考虑阶段和选择阶段的属性效应相似,则混合logit模型的性能不优于两阶段模型。相比之下,当考虑阶段和选择阶段的属性作用差异较大时,两阶段模型比混合logit模型更能恢复平均总体偏好参数。此外,我们可以得出结论,与仅使用选择数据的潜在考虑集选择模型相比,陈述考虑数据几乎不能提高平均偏好参数的恢复。最后,我们使用手机偏好的实证数据来说明模型。
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引用次数: 1
Modelling online job search and choices of dentists in the Australian job market: Staged sequential DCEs and FIML econometric methods 模拟在线求职和选择牙医在澳大利亚就业市场:阶段顺序dce和FIML计量经济学方法
IF 2.4 3区 经济学 Q1 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-09-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.jocm.2022.100372
Elisabeth Huynh , Joffre Swait , Emily Lancsar

Workforce participation decisions involve multiple stages: search, screening and offer evaluation. Standard econometric practice focusses on these stages in isolation. We conceptualize the focal behaviours as separate sequential decision stages, and provide a stated preference measurement framework for online job search and choice with a behaviourally consistent modelling approach. We demonstrate this approach in an empirical application of 275 dentists who completed an online survey including two Discrete Choice Experiments: the first mimicked an online job search site in which dentists decided which jobs they would apply to and the second presented dentists with a job offer which they accepted or rejected. Modelling these tasks requires a two-stage econometric model that incorporates the likelihood of application (first stage) into the job offer choice (second stage). The model detects differences in preferences (hence behaviours) across stages, facilitating the differentiation of policy aimed at search and job choice behaviours. Job screening occurs during search and the marginal propensity to apply for a job-type differs from the offer stage. We suggest that the approach presented provides a valuable way to investigate how dentists particularly, and perhaps the health workforce more generally, respond at different stages of workforce participation decisions and discuss practical implications.

劳动力参与决策涉及多个阶段:搜索、筛选和提供评估。标准的计量经济学实践是孤立地关注这些阶段的。我们将焦点行为概念化为独立的顺序决策阶段,并通过行为一致的建模方法为在线求职和选择提供了一个明确的偏好测量框架。我们对275名牙医进行了实证应用,他们完成了一项在线调查,其中包括两个离散选择实验:第一个模拟了一个在线求职网站,牙医决定他们将申请哪些工作,第二个向牙医展示了他们接受或拒绝的工作机会。对这些任务进行建模需要一个两阶段的计量经济模型,该模型将申请的可能性(第一阶段)纳入工作机会选择(第二阶段)。该模型发现了不同阶段的偏好(即行为)差异,促进了针对求职和工作选择行为的政策区分。工作筛选发生在求职过程中,申请某种工作类型的边际倾向与录用阶段不同。我们认为,所提出的方法提供了一种有价值的方式来调查牙医,特别是,也许更普遍的卫生工作者,如何在劳动力参与决策的不同阶段做出反应,并讨论实际影响。
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引用次数: 0
Matching and weighting in stated preferences for health care 对卫生保健的既定偏好进行匹配和加权
IF 2.4 3区 经济学 Q1 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-09-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.jocm.2022.100367
Caroline M. Vass , Marco Boeri , Christine Poulos , Alex J. Turner

There is an increasing interest in the use of stated preference methods to understand individuals' preferences for health and healthcare. There is also a growing interest in understanding heterogeneity in individuals' preferences. Consequently, stated preference studies frequently consider models that capture either or both observed and unobserved preference heterogeneity. A popular preliminary investigation into heterogeneity involves split-sample analysis to compare subgroups' preferences e.g., comparing patients with clinicians, or older patients with younger. In fixed-effects models, the constant variables (the individuals’ characteristics) remain stable across choice sets and therefore only enter the choice model when interacted with various attributes and/or levels. However, subgroups of respondents may differ on multiple variables that may not easily be implemented with interaction terms because of complexity and a lack of power thus only one, or a few, variables are typically taken into account in each subgroup model. This paper presents an overview of methods for matching and balancing samples to weight individuals with different characteristics in subgroup analysis and an example of how unweighted comparisons may produce erroneous conclusions regarding the degree of heterogeneity in preferences. We illustrate the issue with synthetic and empirical datasets to explore methods for matching subgroups before and within simple choice models. Our results show that entropy balancing and propensity score matching could be more appropriate than analyses using unmatched preference data when heterogeneity is driven by multiple factors. The paper concludes with a discussion of when matching and weighting may and may not be useful in healthcare decision-making.

人们对使用陈述偏好方法来了解个人对健康和保健的偏好越来越感兴趣。人们对理解个体偏好的异质性也越来越感兴趣。因此,陈述偏好研究经常考虑捕获观察到的和未观察到的偏好异质性的模型。对异质性的一项流行的初步调查包括分样本分析,以比较亚组的偏好,例如,比较患者与临床医生,或比较老年患者与年轻患者。在固定效应模型中,恒定变量(个体特征)在选择集中保持稳定,因此只有在与各种属性和/或水平相互作用时才进入选择模型。然而,被调查者的子组可能在多个变量上有所不同,由于复杂性和缺乏权力,这些变量可能不容易用交互条款实现,因此在每个子组模型中通常只考虑一个或几个变量。本文概述了在亚组分析中匹配和平衡样本以对具有不同特征的个体进行加权的方法,并举例说明了未加权比较如何可能产生关于偏好异质性程度的错误结论。我们用合成和经验数据集来说明这个问题,以探索在简单选择模型之前和内部匹配子组的方法。结果表明,当异质性由多个因素驱动时,熵平衡和倾向得分匹配比使用不匹配偏好数据的分析更合适。本文最后讨论了匹配和加权在医疗保健决策中是否有用。
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引用次数: 0
A choice experiment approach to evaluate maize farmers’ decision-making processes in Lao PDR 老挝人民民主共和国玉米农民决策过程的选择实验方法
IF 2.4 3区 经济学 Q1 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-09-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.jocm.2022.100366
Damien Jourdain , Juliette Lairez , Bruno Striffler , Thomas Lundhede

Sustainable intensification seeks to increase outputs from existing farmland in ways that have a lower environmental impact. An extensive literature has examined the determinants of farmers' adoption of the different agro-ecological cropping systems needed to achieve these goals. However, the farmers' preferences for the attributes of these systems and the decision processes for choosing between available systems is still poorly understood. To fill this gap, this paper proposes a methodology that relies on a discrete choice experiment to analyse farmers’ preferences for cropping systems and estimate the heterogeneity of decision processes among farmers. We modelled three major types of decision processes potentially used by farmers to evaluate the systems that are not consistent with the standard utility maximization framework. These findings offer insights into the behavioural patterns of respondents and should help crop system promoters and developers to better understand how their proposed systems are likely to be evaluated by different types of farmers.

可持续集约化旨在以对环境影响较小的方式增加现有农田的产量。大量文献研究了农民采用实现这些目标所需的不同农业生态种植制度的决定因素。然而,农民对这些系统属性的偏好以及在可用系统之间进行选择的决策过程仍然知之甚少。为了填补这一空白,本文提出了一种方法,该方法依赖于离散选择实验来分析农民对种植制度的偏好,并估计农民决策过程的异质性。我们模拟了三种主要类型的决策过程,这些决策过程可能被农民用来评估与标准效用最大化框架不一致的系统。这些发现为调查对象的行为模式提供了见解,并应有助于作物系统的推动者和开发人员更好地了解他们提出的系统可能如何被不同类型的农民评估。
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引用次数: 1
Testing for saliency-led choice behavior in discrete choice modeling: An application in the context of preferences towards nuclear energy in Italy 离散选择模型中显著性导向选择行为的测试:在意大利对核能的偏好背景下的应用
IF 2.4 3区 经济学 Q1 ECONOMICS Pub Date : 2022-09-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.jocm.2022.100370
Davide Contu , Elisabetta Strazzera

This work proposes a discrete choice model that jointly accounts for heterogeneity in preferences and in decision making procedures adopted by respondents, as well as for non-linearities in the utility function, allowing for the potential effect of salient attributes in choice experiments. We present an innovative application in the context of preferences towards nuclear energy, with data obtained from a nationwide online survey conducted in Italy. Results show that most of the variation in the choice data is indeed due to heterogeneity in the decision process, where the saliency heuristic plays an important role. Furthermore, the proposed model provides more conservative monetary valuations as opposed to standard models, potentially leading to substantial differences in cost-benefit analysis. Implications for choice modeling practitioners are discussed, emphasizing the need to account for saliency effects when modeling the choice data.

这项工作提出了一个离散选择模型,该模型共同考虑了受访者在偏好和决策过程中的异质性,以及效用函数的非线性,从而考虑了选择实验中显著属性的潜在影响。我们在核能偏好的背景下提出了一个创新的应用,数据来自意大利进行的全国在线调查。结果表明,选择数据的大部分变化确实是由于决策过程中的异质性,其中显着启发式起着重要作用。此外,与标准模型相比,拟议的模型提供了更保守的货币估值,可能导致成本效益分析方面的重大差异。讨论了对选择建模从业者的影响,强调在建模选择数据时需要考虑显著性效应。
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引用次数: 1
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Journal of Choice Modelling
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