Abstract. Part I of this history describes the motivations for developing radars in the high frequency (HF) band to study plasma density irregularities in the F region of the auroral zone and polar cap ionospheres. French and Swedish scientists were the first to use HF frequencies to study the Doppler velocities of HF radar backscatter from F-region plasma density irregularities over northern Sweden. These observations encouraged the author of this paper to pursue similar measurements over northeastern Alaska, and this eventually led to the construction of a large HF-phased-array radar at Goose Bay, Labrador, Canada. This radar utilized frequencies from 8–20 MHz and could be electronically steered over 16 beam directions, covering a 52 ∘ azimuth sector. Subsequently, similar radars were constructed at Schefferville, Quebec, and Halley Station, Antarctica. Observations with these radars showed that F-region backscatter often exhibited Doppler velocities that were significantly above and below the ion-acoustic velocity. This distinguished HF Doppler measurements from prior measurements of E-region irregularities that were obtained with radars operating at very high frequency (VHF) and ultra-high frequency (UHF). Results obtained with these early HF radars are also presented. They include comparisons of Doppler velocities observed with HF radars and incoherent scatter radars, comparisons of plasma convection patterns observed simultaneously in conjugate hemispheres, and the response of these patterns to changes in the interplanetary magnetic field, transient velocity enhancements in the dayside cusp, preferred frequencies for geomagnetic pulsations, and observations of medium-scale atmospheric gravity waves with HF radars.
{"title":"History of the Super Dual Auroral Radar Network (SuperDARN)-I: pre-SuperDARN developments in high frequency radar technology for ionospheric research and selected scientific results","authors":"R. Greenwald","doi":"10.5194/HGSS-12-77-2021","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/HGSS-12-77-2021","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. Part I of this history describes the motivations for developing radars in the high frequency (HF) band to study plasma density irregularities in the F region of the auroral zone and polar cap ionospheres. French and Swedish scientists were the first to use HF frequencies to study the Doppler velocities of HF radar backscatter from F-region plasma density irregularities over northern Sweden. These observations encouraged the author of this paper to pursue similar measurements over northeastern Alaska, and this eventually led to the construction of a large HF-phased-array radar at Goose Bay, Labrador, Canada. This radar utilized frequencies from 8–20 MHz and could be electronically steered over 16 beam directions, covering a 52 ∘ azimuth sector. Subsequently, similar radars were constructed at Schefferville, Quebec, and Halley Station, Antarctica. Observations with these radars showed that F-region backscatter often exhibited Doppler velocities that were significantly above and below the ion-acoustic velocity. This distinguished HF Doppler measurements from prior measurements of E-region irregularities that were obtained with radars operating at very high frequency (VHF) and ultra-high frequency (UHF). Results obtained with these early HF radars are also presented. They include comparisons of Doppler velocities observed with HF radars and incoherent scatter radars, comparisons of plasma convection patterns observed simultaneously in conjugate hemispheres, and the response of these patterns to changes in the interplanetary magnetic field, transient velocity enhancements in the dayside cusp, preferred frequencies for geomagnetic pulsations, and observations of medium-scale atmospheric gravity waves with HF radars.","PeriodicalId":48918,"journal":{"name":"History of Geo- and Space Sciences","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2021-05-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46569193","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"哲学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Book review: From Crust to Core – A Chronicle of Deep Carbon Science by Simon Mitton","authors":"M. Bouhifd","doi":"10.5194/HGSS-12-95-2021","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/HGSS-12-95-2021","url":null,"abstract":"<jats:p>\u0000 </jats:p>","PeriodicalId":48918,"journal":{"name":"History of Geo- and Space Sciences","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2021-05-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"47035169","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"哲学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Abstract. This paper examines how ionospheric physics emerged as a research speciality in Britain, Germany, and the United States in the first four decades of the 20th century. It argues that the formation of this discipline can be viewed as the confluence of four deep-rooted traditions in which scientists and engineers transformed, from within, research areas connected to radio wave propagation and geomagnetism. These traditions include Cambridge school's mathematical physics, Gottingen's mathematical physics, laboratory-based experimental physics, and Humboldtian-style terrestrial physics. Although focused on ionospheric physics, the paper pursues the idea that a dynamic conception of scientific tradition will provide a new perspective for the study of geosciences history.
{"title":"The formation of ionospheric physics – confluence of traditions and threads of continuity","authors":"Aitor Anduaga","doi":"10.5194/HGSS-12-57-2021","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/HGSS-12-57-2021","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. This paper examines how ionospheric physics emerged as a research speciality\u0000in Britain, Germany, and the United States in the first four decades of the\u000020th century. It argues that the formation of this discipline can be\u0000viewed as the confluence of four deep-rooted traditions in which scientists\u0000and engineers transformed, from within, research areas connected to\u0000radio wave propagation and geomagnetism. These traditions include Cambridge\u0000school's mathematical physics, Gottingen's mathematical physics, laboratory-based experimental physics, and Humboldtian-style terrestrial physics. Although focused on ionospheric physics, the paper pursues the idea that a dynamic conception of scientific tradition will provide a new perspective for the study of geosciences history.","PeriodicalId":48918,"journal":{"name":"History of Geo- and Space Sciences","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2021-04-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46578144","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"哲学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Abstract. With thousands of eyewitness reports, but few instrumental records and no consensus about a theory, ball lightning remains an unsolved problem in atmospheric physics. As chances to monitor this transient phenomenon are low, it seems promising to evaluate observation reports by scientists and trained professionals. The following work compiles 20 published case histories and adds 15 from the author's work and 6 from a Russian database. Forty-one cases from eight countries, 1868–2020, are presented in abstract form with a synthesis. The collection of cases does not claim to be complete. Six influential or notable ball lightning cases are added. It is concluded that well-documented cases from trained observers can promote fieldwork and stimulate and evaluate ball lightning theories. Scientists who have not reported their experience are invited to share it with the author.
{"title":"A brief history of ball lightning observations by scientists and trained professionals","authors":"A. Keul","doi":"10.5194/HGSS-12-43-2021","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/HGSS-12-43-2021","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. With thousands of eyewitness reports, but few\u0000instrumental records and no consensus about a theory, ball lightning remains\u0000an unsolved problem in atmospheric physics. As chances to monitor this\u0000transient phenomenon are low, it seems promising to evaluate observation\u0000reports by scientists and trained professionals. The following work compiles\u000020 published case histories and adds 15 from the author's work and 6 from a\u0000Russian database. Forty-one cases from eight countries, 1868–2020, are presented in\u0000abstract form with a synthesis. The collection of cases does not claim to be\u0000complete. Six influential or notable ball lightning cases are added. It is\u0000concluded that well-documented cases from trained observers can promote\u0000fieldwork and stimulate and evaluate ball lightning theories. Scientists who\u0000have not reported their experience are invited to share it with the author.","PeriodicalId":48918,"journal":{"name":"History of Geo- and Space Sciences","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2021-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45806001","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"哲学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Abstract. From the perspective of the social history of science and transnational history, this paper reviewed the development of the Institute of Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (IGCAS), rather than focusing on its scientific achievements. Before the 1950s, the discipline of geophysics in China, except for the branch of meteorology, had a very weak foundation, and few researchers were engaged in it. The systematic development of geophysics began with the establishment of IGCAS. In this paper, the early development of IGCAS was researched thoroughly. At first, we briefly reviewed the establishment process for IGCAS. After being promoted by the desire of scientists to develop big geophysics, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) integrated scattered academic forces, which included geomagnetism and geophysical exploration, to establish the IGCAS. The IGCAS was based on the Institute of Meteorology of Academia Sinica in the Republic of China era. After that, we summarized work done by IGCAS in the development of geophysics from the 1950s to 1966, the year in which the Cultural Revolution began. We focused on policy support, adjustment of organizational structure, and scientific capacity building, when China was facing an isolated international diplomatic environment, continuous domestic political movements, and an austere social economy. Then, to bolster the development of geophysics in China, the slogan of “Missions Drive Disciplines”, which was instilled and implemented by the Chinese scientific community, was introduced briefly. The scientific development of the IGCAS and typical examples in several branches of geophysics, which included atmospheric science, seismology, space physics, and other fields, were systematically summarized and benchmarked to the international academic level. We then summarized the basic research on geophysics carried out by the institute in economic construction and national defense. Finally, the experience and lessons in the development of this institute and its effect on geophysics in China were explored.
{"title":"The development of geophysics in the early period of the People's Republic of China based on the Institute of Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (1950–1966)","authors":"Zhihui Zhang, Rui Wang","doi":"10.5194/HGSS-12-21-2021","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/HGSS-12-21-2021","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. From the perspective of the social history of science and transnational history, this paper reviewed the development of the Institute of Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (IGCAS), rather than focusing on its scientific achievements. Before the 1950s, the discipline of geophysics in China, except for the branch of meteorology, had a very weak foundation, and few researchers were engaged in it. The systematic development of geophysics began with the establishment of IGCAS. In this paper, the early development of IGCAS was researched thoroughly. At first, we briefly reviewed the establishment process for IGCAS. After being promoted by the desire of scientists to develop big geophysics, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) integrated scattered academic forces, which included geomagnetism and geophysical exploration, to establish the IGCAS. The IGCAS was based on the Institute of Meteorology of Academia Sinica in the Republic of China era. After that, we summarized work done by IGCAS in the development of geophysics from the 1950s to 1966, the year in which the Cultural Revolution began. We focused on policy support, adjustment of organizational structure, and scientific capacity building, when China was facing an isolated international diplomatic environment, continuous domestic political movements, and an austere social economy. Then, to bolster the development of geophysics in China, the slogan of “Missions Drive Disciplines”, which was instilled and implemented by the Chinese scientific community, was introduced briefly. The scientific development of the IGCAS and typical examples in several branches of geophysics, which included atmospheric science, seismology, space physics, and other fields, were systematically summarized and benchmarked to the international academic level. We then summarized the basic research on geophysics carried out by the institute in economic construction and national defense. Finally, the experience and lessons in the development of this institute and its effect on geophysics in China were explored.","PeriodicalId":48918,"journal":{"name":"History of Geo- and Space Sciences","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2021-02-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43128440","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"哲学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Abstract. A brief summary will be given of the historical development of Geophysical Service of Austria, which comprises the national geomagnetic, gravimetric and seismological services as well as the “Applied Geophysics Section” located at the Zentralanstalt fur Meteorologie und Geodynamik (ZAMG) in Vienna in Austria. The paper presents the achievements, changes and challenges of the Department from its modest beginning in 1851 until 2020. Finally, a special emphasis is placed on the Conrad Observatory – one of the most comprehensive geophysical research observatories in the world.
{"title":"The history of the Geophysical Service of Austria","authors":"W. Lenhardt","doi":"10.5194/HGSS-12-11-2021","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/HGSS-12-11-2021","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. A brief summary will be given of the historical development of\u0000Geophysical Service of Austria, which comprises the national geomagnetic,\u0000gravimetric and seismological services as well as the “Applied Geophysics\u0000Section” located at the Zentralanstalt fur Meteorologie und Geodynamik\u0000(ZAMG) in Vienna in Austria. The paper presents the achievements, changes\u0000and challenges of the Department from its modest beginning in 1851 until\u00002020. Finally, a special emphasis is placed on the Conrad Observatory – one\u0000of the most comprehensive geophysical research observatories in the world.","PeriodicalId":48918,"journal":{"name":"History of Geo- and Space Sciences","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2021-01-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45796830","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"哲学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Abstract. A historical review of the establishment of the Haldde Observatory in Bossekop, Kaafjord, Finnmark, in northern Norway is presented together with some of the scientific outcomes of the efforts and the aftermath of this enterprise that led to the establishment of the University of Tromso in 1968 and finally the inauguration of the Haldde Observatory as a historic site by the European Physical Society in 2018.
{"title":"The legacy of the Haldde Observatory","authors":"A. Brekke","doi":"10.5194/HGSS-12-1-2021","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/HGSS-12-1-2021","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. A historical review of the establishment of the Haldde\u0000Observatory in Bossekop, Kaafjord, Finnmark, in northern Norway is presented\u0000together with some of the scientific outcomes of the efforts and the\u0000aftermath of this enterprise that led to the establishment of the\u0000University of Tromso in 1968 and finally the inauguration of the Haldde\u0000Observatory as a historic site by the European Physical Society in 2018.","PeriodicalId":48918,"journal":{"name":"History of Geo- and Space Sciences","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2021-01-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48143037","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"哲学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-09-16DOI: 10.5194/HGSS-11-215-2020
D. Agnew
Abstract. Tidal fluctuations in gravity will affect the period of a pendulum and hence the timekeeping of any such clock that uses one. Since pendulum clocks were, until the 1940s, the best timekeepers available, there has been interest in seeing if tidal effects could be observed in the best performing examples of these clocks. The first such observation was in 1929, before gravity tides were measured with spring gravimeters; at the time of the second (1940–1943), such gravimeters were still being developed. Subsequent observations, having been made after pendulum clocks had ceased to be the best available timekeepers and after reliable gravimeter measurements of tides, have been more of an indication of clock quality than a contribution to our knowledge of tides. This paper describes the different measurements and revisits them in terms of our current knowledge of Earth tides. Doing so shows that clock-based systems, though noisier than spring gravimeters, were an early form of an absolute gravimeter that could indeed observe Earth tides.
{"title":"Time and tide: pendulum clocks and gravity tides","authors":"D. Agnew","doi":"10.5194/HGSS-11-215-2020","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/HGSS-11-215-2020","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. Tidal fluctuations in gravity will affect the period of\u0000a pendulum and hence the timekeeping of any such clock that uses one.\u0000Since pendulum clocks were, until the 1940s,\u0000the best timekeepers available,\u0000there has been interest in seeing if tidal effects\u0000could be observed in the best performing examples of these clocks.\u0000The first such observation was in 1929,\u0000before gravity tides were measured with spring gravimeters;\u0000at the time of the second (1940–1943), such\u0000gravimeters were still being developed.\u0000Subsequent observations, having been made\u0000after pendulum clocks had ceased to be the best\u0000available timekeepers and after reliable\u0000gravimeter measurements of tides,\u0000have been more of an indication of clock quality\u0000than a contribution to our knowledge of tides.\u0000This paper describes the different measurements\u0000and revisits them in terms of our current knowledge\u0000of Earth tides.\u0000Doing so shows that clock-based systems,\u0000though noisier than spring gravimeters,\u0000were an early form of an absolute gravimeter that\u0000could indeed observe Earth tides.\u0000","PeriodicalId":48918,"journal":{"name":"History of Geo- and Space Sciences","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2020-09-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"41520078","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"哲学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-09-11DOI: 10.5194/hgss-11-207-2020
R. Harrison
Abstract. The “Carnegie curve” describes the diurnal variation of the global atmospheric electric circuit. It was originally found from atmospheric electric potential gradient (PG) measurements made on the Carnegie, effectively a floating atmospheric electrical observatory, which undertook global cruises between 1915 and 1929. These measurements confirmed that the single diurnal cycle PG variation, previously obtained in both polar regions, was global in extent. The averaged diurnal PG variation, represented by derived harmonic fits, provides a characteristic variation known as the “Carnegie curve”, against which modern measurements are still compared. The ocean air PG measurements were extensively described in reports of the Carnegie Institution of Washington (CIW) but widely used secondary sources of the Carnegie curve contain small differences, arising through approximations and transcription errors. Investigations using the historical CIW data show that the original harmonic fit coefficients are reproducible. Despite the inconsistencies, the secondary sources nevertheless mostly yield diurnal variations which fall within the variability of the original historical data.
摘要“卡内基曲线”描述了全球大气电路的日变化。它最初是从卡内基的大气电势梯度（PG）测量中发现的，该天文台在1915年至1929年间进行了全球巡航。这些测量结果证实，先前在两极地区获得的单个昼夜周期PG变化是全局不精确的。由导出的调和系数表示的平均日PG变化提供了一种被称为“卡内基曲线”的特征变化，现代测量仍与之进行比较。CarnegieInstitution of Washington（CIW）的报告中对海洋空气PG测量进行了广泛描述，但广泛使用的Carnegie曲线的二次源包含较小的差异，这是由于近似和转换误差引起的。使用历史CIW数据进行的研究表明，原始谐波拟合系数是可重复的。尽管存在一致性，但次要来源大多产生内部变量，这些变量属于原始历史数据的可变性范围。
{"title":"Behind the curve: a comparison of historical sources for the Carnegie curve of the global atmospheric electric circuit","authors":"R. Harrison","doi":"10.5194/hgss-11-207-2020","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/hgss-11-207-2020","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. The “Carnegie curve” describes the diurnal variation of the global\u0000atmospheric electric circuit. It was originally found from atmospheric\u0000electric potential gradient (PG) measurements made on the Carnegie, effectively a\u0000floating atmospheric electrical observatory, which undertook global cruises\u0000between 1915 and 1929. These measurements confirmed that the single diurnal\u0000cycle PG variation, previously obtained in both polar regions, was global in\u0000extent. The averaged diurnal PG variation, represented by derived harmonic\u0000fits, provides a characteristic variation known as the “Carnegie curve”,\u0000against which modern measurements are still compared. The ocean air PG\u0000measurements were extensively described in reports of the Carnegie\u0000Institution of Washington (CIW) but widely used secondary sources of the\u0000Carnegie curve contain small differences, arising through approximations and\u0000transcription errors. Investigations using the historical CIW data show that\u0000the original harmonic fit coefficients are reproducible. Despite the\u0000inconsistencies, the secondary sources nevertheless mostly yield diurnal\u0000variations which fall within the variability of the original historical\u0000data.\u0000","PeriodicalId":48918,"journal":{"name":"History of Geo- and Space Sciences","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2020-09-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45147387","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"哲学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-09-08DOI: 10.5194/hgss-11-199-2020
A. Wittmann
Abstract. Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) was one of the most eminent scientists of all time. He was born in Brunswick, studied in Gottingen, passed his doctoral examination in Helmstedt, and from 1807 until his death, was the director of the Gottingen Astronomical Observatory. As a professor of astronomy, he worked in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, geodesy, and physics, where he made world-famous and lasting contributions. In his honour, and to preserve his memory, the Gauss Society was founded in Gottingen in 1962. The present paper aims to give nonspecialists a brief introduction into the life of Gauss and an introduction into the Gauss Society and its history.
{"title":"Carl Friedrich Gauss and the Gauss Society: a brief overview","authors":"A. Wittmann","doi":"10.5194/hgss-11-199-2020","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.5194/hgss-11-199-2020","url":null,"abstract":"Abstract. Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) was one of the most eminent\u0000scientists of all time. He was born in Brunswick, studied in Gottingen, passed his doctoral examination in Helmstedt, and from 1807 until his death, was the director of the Gottingen Astronomical Observatory. As a professor of astronomy, he worked in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, geodesy, and physics, where he made world-famous and lasting contributions. In his honour, and to preserve his memory, the Gauss Society was founded in Gottingen in 1962. The present paper aims to give nonspecialists a brief introduction into the life of Gauss and an introduction into the Gauss Society and its history.","PeriodicalId":48918,"journal":{"name":"History of Geo- and Space Sciences","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.3,"publicationDate":"2020-09-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43990347","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"哲学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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