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Development of Listening Comprehension and Pronunciation of Pinyin Characters in Mandarin Chinese Through Online Language Teaching: A study on Chinese Language Students at the Faculty of Education, Uttaradit Rajabhat University 通过在线语言教学培养汉语普通话听力理解和拼音发音能力:对乌塔拉迪拉贾巴大学教育学院汉语专业学生的研究
Pub Date : 2024-04-17 DOI: 10.5539/jel.v13n4p194
Nareerat Hongsamsibkao
This study explores the effectiveness of online Chinese language courses, focusing on the development of listening comprehension and Mandarin pinyin pronunciation skills among Chinese language students at the Faculty of Education, Uttaradit Rajabhat University. Utilizing a systematic approach, the research employed a pre-test and post-test design to evaluate the impact of the instructional methods on students’ language abilities. Significant improvements were observed in both listening comprehension and pronunciation skills post-intervention, as evidenced by statistical analysis. Moreover, the study gauges students’ satisfaction with the online learning experience, revealing high levels of contentment regarding course content, accessibility, and instructional delivery. The research outcomes have demonstrated a statistically significant improvement in the skills assessed. Students’ scores in listening comprehension and Mandarin pinyin pronunciation substantially increased from pre-instruction to post-instruction. Specifically, the average scores in listening comprehension improved from 16.45 to 24.50, while pronunciation scores rose from 10.85 to 16.30, both evidencing significant advancements with a significance level of 0.05. These results underscore the effectiveness of the online Chinese language courses in enhancing students’ linguistic capabilities.
本研究探讨了在线汉语课程的有效性,重点关注 Uttaradit Rajabhat 大学教育学院汉语专业学生听力理解能力和普通话拼音发音能力的培养。研究采用系统方法,通过前测和后测设计来评估教学方法对学生语言能力的影响。通过统计分析发现,干预后学生的听力理解能力和发音能力都有显著提高。此外,该研究还评估了学生对在线学习体验的满意度,结果显示,学生对课程内容、可及性和教学方法的满意度都很高。研究结果表明,所评估的技能在统计学上有显著提高。从教学前到教学后,学生在听力理解和普通话拼音发音方面的得分大幅提高。具体地说,听力理解的平均分从 16.45 分提高到 24.50 分,而发音的平均分从 10.85 分提高到 16.30 分,在显著性水平为 0.05 的情况下,这两项都有明显的提高。这些结果凸显了在线中文课程在提高学生语言能力方面的有效性。
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引用次数: 0
The Essential Needs for School Administration Model Under the Office of the Basic Education Commission According to the King’s Philosophy 根据国王的理念,基础教育委员会办公室下的学校管理模式的基本需要
Pub Date : 2024-04-17 DOI: 10.5539/jel.v13n4p185
Bancha Senakun, Karn Ruangmontri
This research aimed to: 1) investigate the components and indicators of school administration under the Office of the Basic Education Commission of Thailand according to the King’s Philosophy; 2) examine the current state, desired state, and the needs of school administration under the Office of the Basic Education Commission of Thailand according to the King’s Philosophy. The research is divided into 2 phrases. Phase 1: examine the components and indicators of the school administration under the Office of the Basic Education Commission of Thailand according to the King’s Philosophy, targeting a qualified group of 9 experts selected through purposive sampling. This selection is based on the appropriateness assessment using the components and indicators evaluation form. Phase 2: examine the current state, desired state, and the needs of school administration under the Office of the Basic Education Commission of Thailand according to the King’s Philosophy. The sample group comprises 320 school administrators selected through multi-stage random sampling and applying the table of Krejcie and Morgan. The data were collected through semi- structured interview form and questionnaire with a 5-level Likert scale. Average, standard deviation, Priority Needs Index (PNImodified) and content analysis were used to analyze the data. The findings of the study revealed the following: 1. There are 4 components and 30 indicators of school administration under the Office of the Basic Education Commission of Thailand according to the King’s Philosophy categorized as follows: 1) academic administration with 10 indicators, 2) financial administration with 5 indicators, 3) personnel administration with 4 indicators, and 4) general administration with 11 indicators. Overall, the proficiency level is rated as the highest. 2. The current state is rated as the moderate level, and the desired state is at the highest level. When assessing the needs of school administration under the Office of the Basic Education Commission of Thailand according to the King’s Philosophy, it is found that the component with the highest need is general administration. This is followed by personnel administration, financial administration, and academic administration, with the lowest index of essential needs respectively.
本研究旨在1) 根据国王的理念,调查泰国基础教育委员会办公室下属学校管理的组成部分和指标;2) 根据国王的理念,研究泰国基础教育委员会办公室下属学校管理的现状、理想状态和需求。研究分为两个阶段。第 1 阶段:根据国王的理念,研究泰国基础教育委员会办公室下属学校管理的组成部分和指标,对象是通过目的性抽样选出的 9 位合格专家。选择的依据是使用要素和指标评估表进行适当性评估。第 2 阶段:根据国王的理念,研究泰国基础教育委员会办公室下属学校管理的现状、理想状态和需求。样本组包括通过多阶段随机抽样并应用 Krejcie 和 Morgan 表格选出的 320 名学校行政人员。数据通过半结构式访谈表和问卷收集,采用 5 级李克特量表。数据分析采用了平均值、标准差、优先需求指数(PNImodified)和内容分析法。研究结果如下 1.泰国基础教育委员会办公室根据国王的理念,将学校管理分为以下 4 个组成部分和 30 个指标:1) 教学管理,共 10 项指标;2) 财务管理,共 5 项指标;3) 人事管理,共 4 项指标;4) 总务管理,共 11 项指标。总体而言,熟练程度被评为最高。 2.2. 现状被评为中等水平,理想状态被评为最高水平。在根据国王的理念对泰国基础教育委员会办公室下属学校行政管理的需求进行评估时,发现需求最大的部分是一般行政管理。其次是人事管理、财务管理和学术管理,基本需求指数分别最低。
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引用次数: 0
Development of an Experiential Learning Management Model to Develop Career Skills for Primary School Students 开发体验式学习管理模式,培养小学生的职业技能
Pub Date : 2024-04-17 DOI: 10.5539/jel.v13n4p231
Parama Khaewphuang
The objectives of this research were (1) to develop the experiential learning management model to develop career skills for primary school students, and (2) to evaluate the effectiveness of the experiential learning management model. The sample was divided into two groups: (1) the sample used to evaluate the appropriateness of the learning management model, namely 5 experts in learning management model development and career skills development of students, were obtained by purposive sampling; (2) the sample used to evaluate the effectiveness of the learning management model consisted of 30 students in grade 6 of Ban Khek Noi School, which obtained by simple random sampling. Data analysis statistics were mean, standard deviation, and repeated measure ANOVA. Research findings showed that (1) the experiential learning management model was appropriate at a high level; (2) the students career skills after using the learning management model at a very good level; and (3) the post-career skills scores of the students who learned from the experiential learning management model were significantly higher than their pre-career skills score at the .05 level.
本研究的目标是:(1)开发培养小学生职业技能的体验式学习管理模式;(2)评价体验式学习管理模式的有效性。样本分为两组:(1)用于评估学习管理模式适宜性的样本,即 5 名学习管理模式开发和学生职业技能培养方面的专家,通过目的性抽样获得;(2)用于评估学习管理模式有效性的样本,由 30 名 Ban Khek Noi 学校六年级学生组成,通过简单随机抽样获得。数据分析统计采用均值、标准差和重复测量方差分析。 研究结果表明:(1) 体验式学习管理模式的适宜度较高;(2) 学生在使用学习管理模式后的职业技能达到了很好的水平;(3) 在 0.05 的水平上,体验式学习管理模式学习后的学生的职业技能得分明显高于其职业技能学习前的得分。
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引用次数: 0
Intersectoral Interventions in School to Develop Strategies to Prevent the Use of Alcohol and Other Drugs: A Scoping Review 在学校采取跨部门干预措施,制定预防使用酒精和其他药物的策略:范围审查
Pub Date : 2024-04-16 DOI: 10.5539/jel.v13n3p165
Aurélio Matos Andrade, Juliana da Motta Girardi, A. Pinto, Maria da Glória Lima, L. Köptcke, Lourenço Faria Costa
It is important to prioritize intersectoral action at schools to prevent the use of alcohol and other drugs. This strategic act should be organized with multidisciplinary learning characteristics and with the involvement of different stakeholders. The aim of a recent scoping review was to identify the factors that benefit and hinder intersectoral actions at school resulting from the elaboration of policies to prevent drug use. It seems like the research study was a scoping review that used the P-population, C-context, and C-concept structure. The study searched for information in various databases like Embase, Proquest, Lilacs, Medline via Pubmed, PsycInfo, WHO-Iris, and PAHO-Iris on April 17, 2023. According to the results, there were 5 studies that were eligible to answer the research question. One of the advantages of intersectoral actions is the role of schools in creating a support network with different social actors, particularly with family involvement. On the other hand, one of the challenges is inconsistencies in legal regulations, which do not provide enough guidance to schools on how to prevent alcohol and drug use. While public and private schools may be affected differently by social and economic factors, it is essential to invest in developing policies that focus on drug prevention for children and adolescents who are learning in schools.
必须优先在学校开展跨部门行动,防止酗酒和使用其他毒品。这一战略行动应具有多学科学习的特点,并有不同利益相关者的参与。最近进行的一次范围界定研究旨在确定制定预防吸毒政策后,有利于和阻碍学校跨部门行动的因素。这项研究似乎是一项采用 P-人群、C-背景和 C-概念结构的范围界定研究。该研究于 2023 年 4 月 17 日在 Embase、Proquest、Lilacs、Medline via Pubmed、PsycInfo、WHO-Iris 和 PAHO-Iris 等多个数据库中搜索信息。结果显示,有 5 项研究符合回答研究问题的条件。跨部门行动的优势之一是学校在与不同的社会参与者,特别是家庭参与建立支持网络方面所发挥的作用。另一方面,面临的挑战之一是法律法规的不一致,在如何预防酗酒和吸毒方面没有为学校提供足够的指导。虽然公立学校和私立学校可能会受到社会和经济因素的不同影响,但必须着力制定政策,重点关注在校学习的儿童和青少年的毒品预防问题。
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引用次数: 0
Instructional Strategies to Produce Educational Media Systematically 系统制作教育媒体的教学策略
Pub Date : 2024-04-14 DOI: 10.5539/jel.v13n4p121
Thapanee Seechaliao
The main research purpose focused on investigating the instructional strategies to produce educational media systematically. The qualitative research methods were conducted by in-depth interviews with the experts and undergraduate students on effectively designing these instructional strategies. The participants consisted of two groups; 1) nine experts in the field of instructional strategies. 2) twelve undergraduate students. Research instruments were two semi-structured interviews with open questions; 1) two sets of interview questions designed for those specialists, and 2) the interview questions designed for an excellent student. Collected data was analyzed and categorized into key issues. The results were presented in descriptive analysis. The findings revealed as following: 1) two main popular instructional media types as follows; 1.1) digital media and 1.2) handmade media 2) the instructional strategies as follows: 2.1) ADDIE included analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. 2.2) 3P included pre-production, production, post-production 2.3) project-based learning 2.4) design-based learning, and 2.5) creative-based learning. 3) teaching techniques and methods encourage students such as case studies, best practices, creative practice, questions, discussion, brainstorming, team-based/group, etc. 4) organized activities to encourage students with active learning, creative knowledge, and instructional media systematically. 5) online tools and new technology could be active learning tools and motivate learners to create new media. Moreover, learning engagement, social media, and immediate feedback could engage students efficiently. 6) media evaluations should be evaluated on the design, production processes, and results. 7) the crucial factors consist of 1) instructional strategies/teaching techniques 2) teachers 3) students 5) materials, equipment, and supporting tools 6) learning environments 7) the work process. 8) the limitations are as follows; 1) teachers 2) students 3) time-limited 4) budget-limited.
研究的主要目的是调查系统制作教育媒体的教学策略。研究采用定性研究方法,就如何有效设计这些教学策略对专家和本科生进行了深入访谈。参与者包括两组:1)9 位教学策略领域的专家。2) 12 名本科生。研究工具是两个带有开放式问题的半结构化访谈;1)为这些专家设计的两套访谈问题;2)为一名优秀学生设计的访谈问题。对收集到的数据进行了分析,并按关键问题进行了分类。结果以描述性分析的形式呈现。调查结果如下1) 两种主要的流行教学媒体类型如下:1.1) 数字媒体和 1.2) 手工媒体 2) 教学策略如下:2.1) ADDIE 包括分析、设计、开发、实施和评估。2.2) 3P 包括前期制作、制作、后期制作 2.3) 基于项目的学习 2.4) 基于设计的学习和 2.5) 基于创意的学习。3) 鼓励学生的教学技巧和方法,如案例分析、最佳实践、创意实践、提问、讨论、头脑风暴、团队/小组等。4) 有组织地开展活动,鼓励学生主动学习,创造性地掌握知识,系统地使用教学媒体。5) 在线工具和新技术可以成为主动学习的工具,激励学习者创造新媒体。此外,学习参与、社交媒体和即时反馈可以有效地吸引学生。6) 媒体评价应从设计、制作过程和结果三个方面进行。7) 关键因素包括:1)教学策略/教学技巧 2)教师 3)学生 5)材料、设备和辅助工具 6)学习环境 7)工作过程。8) 限制因素如下:1)教师 2)学生 3)时间限制 4)预算限制。
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引用次数: 0
The Effects of the Teaching Games for Understanding (TGFU) Mode Adopted in A College Basketball Program 在大学篮球课程中采用 "游戏促理解"(TGFU)教学模式的效果
Pub Date : 2024-04-14 DOI: 10.5539/jel.v13n4p134
Yang Li, Jiraporn Chano
Basketball, as one of the most popular sports courses in Chinese colleges and universities, has always been taught in a traditional ball teaching method, which has caused many problems in students’ learning effects, such as poor basketball tactics, weaker physical fitness and so on. Therefore, it is imperative to reform the basketball courses in colleges and universities. Accordingly, this paper is aimed to explore the effects of the Teaching Games for Understanding (TGFU) method in basketball courses on male students from the Class of 2023, a university in Shanghai, China, in terms of their basketball tactics and physical fitness. The study sampled 60 students randomly selected from 1850 students who took the optional basketball courses. The selected students were divided into two classes, either with 30 students: the experimental classes taught with the TGFU method and the control class taught with the traditional method. The data were collected from the pre-tests and post-tests of both classes and analyzed by the tool Statistic Package for Social Science (SPSS 24.0). Including the calculation of average values and standard deviation for T-test. It is found that the TGFU adopted in the basketball courses has significantly improved students’ basketball tactics and physical fitness, and that this method is advised to apply in college courses for students of all grades.
篮球作为我国高校中最受欢迎的体育课程之一,一直以来都是采用传统的球类教学方法,导致学生在学习效果上存在诸多问题,如篮球技战术较差、身体素质较弱等。因此,改革高校篮球课程势在必行。因此,本文旨在探讨篮球课程中的 "以游戏促理解 "教学法对上海某高校 2023 级男生篮球技战术和身体素质的影响。研究从 1850 名选修篮球课的学生中随机抽取了 60 名学生。被选中的学生被分为两个班级,每个班级 30 人:采用 TGFU 教学法的实验班和采用传统教学法的对照班。数据来自两个班级的前测和后测,并通过社会科学统计软件包(SPSS 24.0)进行分析。包括计算平均值和标准差进行 T 检验。研究发现,在篮球课程中采用 TGFU 有助于显著提高学生的篮球战术水平和身体素质,建议将此方法应用于大学各年级学生的课程中。
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引用次数: 0
Assessment of the Physical Literacy Environment in Early Childhood Classrooms 评估幼儿教室中的体育识字环境
Pub Date : 2024-04-14 DOI: 10.5539/jel.v13n4p76
Julie Lachapelle, Annie Charron, Hélène Beaudry
This study aims to assess the physical literacy environment in 30 early childhood classrooms servicing 4- to 6-year-old children. A high-quality literacy environment that includes a variety of materials and resources is an important part of children’s emergent literacy, as research shows their use supports oral and written language development (Dynia et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2023). Observations were conducted using the Early Language and Literacy Classroom Observation Pre-K (ELLCO Pre-K; Smith et al., 2008) and the Literacy Environment Checklist (Smith et al., 2002), along with qualitative observational data and photographs of the classrooms. Overall, results show a low or basic level of quality of the physical literacy environment. Classrooms lack quality features such as a wide variety of books, writing materials in learning centers, accessible environmental prints, and representations of children’s diversity in reading materials. This level of quality is not considered sufficient to adequately support the language development of 4- to 6-year-old children, particularly those from disadvantaged backgrounds (Cunningham, 2010). These findings underline the importance of teachers’ professional development to better support emergent literacy through the physical environment of early childhood classrooms.
本研究旨在评估为 4-6 岁儿童服务的 30 个幼儿教室的物质识字环境。包括各种材料和资源在内的高质量识字环境是儿童萌芽识字的重要组成部分,因为研究表明,使用这些材料和资源有助于口语和书面语言的发展(Dynia 等人,2018 年;Yang 等人,2023 年)。我们使用 "学前班早期语言和识字课堂观察"(ELLCO Pre-K; Smith 等人,2008 年)和 "识字环境检查表"(Smith 等人,2002 年)以及定性观察数据和课堂照片进行了观察。总体而言,结果显示物理识字环境的质量较低或处于基本水平。教室缺乏高质量的特色,如种类繁多的书籍、学习中心的书写材料、无障碍环境印刷品以及体现儿童多样性的阅读材料。这种质量水平被认为不足以充分支持 4-6 岁儿童的语言发展,尤其是那些来自弱势背景的儿童(Cunningham,2010 年)。这些发现强调了教师专业发展的重要性,以通过幼儿教室的物质环境更好地支持萌芽识字。
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引用次数: 0
The Study of Components Technology Leadership of Teachers in Public Art Education Management Take Nanning, Guangxi 广西南宁公共艺术教育管理中教师技术领导力的成分研究
Pub Date : 2024-04-14 DOI: 10.5539/jel.v13n4p109
Danyang Xu, Suwat Julsuwan
The objectives of this article were: 1) to investigate the components and indicators of Technology Leadership of Teachers in Public Art Education Management in Nanning; 2) to examine the current conditions, desired conditions, and the necessity for developing Technology Leadership of Teachers in Public Art Education Management in Nanning; and 3) to explore guidelines for fostering Technology Leadership of Teachers in Public Art Education Management in Nanning, Guangxi. The research sample comprised 7 participants. The study was divided into three steps: Step 1 involved examining the components and indicators, with qualified individuals evaluating their suitability. Step 2 entailed investigating the current situation using a multi-stage sampling method, with a sample group of 263 individuals. Step 3 focused on exploring guidelines for developing technology leadership among teachers, utilizing data from 6 individuals. Research tools included questionnaires, interviews, and assessments. Statistical analysis methods such as mean, standard deviation, and the analysis of necessary conditions (PNI modified) were employed for data interpretation. The research findings revealed that: 1) the components and indicators of technology leadership among teachers in educational management comprised 4 components and 40 indicators, namely: Technological vision with 10 indicators, Technological competence with 10 indicators, Technology professional development with 10 indicators, and Technology integration with 10 indicators, rated as highly appropriate overall. 2) The necessary requirements for developing technology leadership among teachers in educational management suggested the need for development across all components. 3) The guidelines for fostering technology leadership among teachers in educational management encompassed a total of 13 development strategies. The assessment of these strategies indicated a high level of appropriateness and feasibility.
本文的目的是1)研究南宁市公共艺术教育管理中教师技术领导力的构成要素和指标;2)考察南宁市公共艺术教育管理中教师技术领导力的现状、期望条件和发展的必要性;3)探索广西南宁市公共艺术教育管理中教师技术领导力的培养指南。研究样本包括 7 名参与者。研究分为三个步骤:第 1 步是研究内容和指标,由有资格的人员对其适用性进行评估。第 2 步是采用多阶段抽样方法调查现状,样本组为 263 人。第 3 步的重点是利用 6 个人的数据,探索培养教师技术领导力的指导方针。研究工具包括问卷、访谈和评估。数据解释采用了平均值、标准差和必要条件分析(PNI 修正)等统计分析方法。研究结果表明1)教育管理中教师技术领导力的构成要素和指标包括 4 个构成要素和 40 个指标,即技术愿景包括 10 个指标,技术能力包括 10 个指标,技术专业发展包括 10 个指标,技术整合包括 10 个指标。2) 在教育管理中培养教师技术领导力的必要条件表明,需要发展所有组成部分。3) 培养教师在教育管理中的技术领导力的指导方针共包括 13 项发展策略。对这些策略的评估表明,其适宜性和可行性都很高。
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引用次数: 0
Development of a Scale of Skills in Teaching Work and Innovation in University Education 制定大学教育教学工作与创新技能量表
Pub Date : 2024-04-14 DOI: 10.5539/jel.v13n4p96
Luis Felipe Dias Lopes, Fabiane Volpato Chiapinoto, Martiele Gonçalves Moreira, Nuvea Kuhn, Fillipe Grando Lopes, Luciana Davi Traverso, Deoclécio Junior Cardoso Silva, Gilnei Luiz de Moura
This study aimed to validate a scale for subjectively measuring teaching competencies for innovation in higher education. The scale was developed by creating a set of items that underwent content validity through the Delphi technique and face validity. A survey was then conducted with 523 higher education professors. The resulting scale, called the STW-ICE Scale, consists of four dimensions: continuing education, creativity, digital fluency, and scientificity. We found that the scale has psychometric properties that allow for subjective measurement of the proposed competencies. The SmartPLS and SPSS software were used for data assessment. Additionally, we found high levels of teaching skills in the sample for all dimensions. Based on these findings, this study successfully achieved its goal of developing and validating a scale. We hope that this scale will be used not only for classificatory diagnoses but also to encourage reflection on teaching practices in higher education with a focus on innovation.
本研究旨在验证主观测量高等教育创新教学能力的量表。该量表通过德尔菲技术和面效技术进行内容效度验证后,创建了一套项目。然后对 523 名高等教育教授进行了调查。最终形成的量表名为 STW-ICE 量表,由四个维度组成:继续教育、创造性、数字流畅性和科学性。我们发现,该量表具有心理测量特性,可以对所提出的能力进行主观测量。数据评估使用了 SmartPLS 和 SPSS 软件。此外,我们还发现样本中所有维度的教学技能水平都很高。基于这些发现,本研究成功实现了开发和验证量表的目标。我们希望该量表不仅能用于分类诊断,还能鼓励对高等教育教学实践进行反思,并将重点放在创新上。
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引用次数: 0
Factors Influencing Sustainability Communication of Communication Arts Students in Thailand 影响泰国传媒艺术专业学生可持续性交流的因素
Pub Date : 2024-04-14 DOI: 10.5539/jel.v13n4p86
Sumaj Kitisurakulchai, Seree Woraphong, Sornpravate Krajangkantamatr, Preedaree Sirirat
This study aimed to construct a causal relationship model of factors influencing communication arts students’ qualification for sustainability communication (SC), examine the goodness-of-fit model with empirical data, and analyze the effect size of the causal relationship model in terms of influencing factors. Data were collected from 400 communication arts students using a set of questionnaires rated on a five-point scale. The results were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics 23.0 and LISREL version 8.80 to determine the causal relationship model. The findings revealed that the construct of the causal relationship model of factors influencing SC of these students comprised four latent variables measured from 12 observed variables. Moreover, the influencing factors were consistent with the empirical data at a good level considering the accordance index, which consisted of x2 = 13.153, df = 25, p-Value = 0.974, RMSEA = 0.000, Standardized RMR = 0.006, GFI = 0.996, and AGFI = 0.979. The causal relationship model of the factors affecting SC revealed that education sustainable development could have direct, indirect, and total effects; the knowledge-based journalist concept could have direct, indirect, and total effects; and communication art principles could have direct and total effects, respectively.
本研究旨在构建传播学专业学生可持续传播(SC)素质影响因素的因果关系模型,用实证数据检验模型的拟合优度,并分析因果关系模型在影响因素方面的效应大小。研究使用一套五点量表对 400 名传播艺术专业学生进行了问卷调查。使用 IBM SPSS 统计 23.0 和 LISREL 版本 8.80 对结果进行分析,以确定因果关系模型。研究结果表明,影响这些学生 SC 的因素的因果关系模型的建构包括从 12 个观察变量中测量出的 4 个潜变量。此外,从符合指数来看,影响因素与经验数据的符合程度较高,符合指数为 x2 = 13.153,df = 25,p 值 = 0.974,RMSEA = 0.000,标准化 RMR = 0.006,GFI = 0.996,AGFI = 0.979。SC 各影响因素的因果关系模型显示,教育可持续发展可产生直接、间接和总体影响;知识型记者理念可产生直接、间接和总体影响;传播艺术原则可产生直接和总体影响。
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引用次数: 0
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