This study investigated whether structural priming, as a reflection of error‐driven implicit learning mechanisms, could lead first language speakers and classroom learners (including heritage speakers and second language learners) of Mandarin to adapt their productions and real‐time predictions of dative constructions. Participants completed a visual world eye tracking + structural priming (VWSP) task where they took turns reading aloud sentences (prime trials) and listening to sentences while looking at visual scenes (target trials) containing three entities (agent, theme, recipient). They also completed written picture description tasks eliciting dative sentences before and after the VWSP task. The results revealed no immediate priming effects or longer‐term adaptation in real‐time prediction. Nevertheless, the priming treatment led to longer‐term adaptation in production in a 1‐day delayed posttest. Notably, the patterns of change reflect error‐driven learning in accords with different initial biases of the target dative verbs among different types of language users.
{"title":"Priming Ditransitives in Native Speakers and Learners of Mandarin: Error‐Driven Learning Affects Production but Not Real‐Time Predictive Processing","authors":"Yanxin (Alice) Zhu, Theres Grüter","doi":"10.1111/lang.70012","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.70012","url":null,"abstract":"This study investigated whether structural priming, as a reflection of error‐driven implicit learning mechanisms, could lead first language speakers and classroom learners (including heritage speakers and second language learners) of Mandarin to adapt their productions and real‐time predictions of dative constructions. Participants completed a visual world eye tracking + structural priming (VWSP) task where they took turns reading aloud sentences (prime trials) and listening to sentences while looking at visual scenes (target trials) containing three entities (agent, theme, recipient). They also completed written picture description tasks eliciting dative sentences before and after the VWSP task. The results revealed no immediate priming effects or longer‐term adaptation in real‐time prediction. Nevertheless, the priming treatment led to longer‐term adaptation in production in a 1‐day delayed posttest. Notably, the patterns of change reflect error‐driven learning in accords with different initial biases of the target dative verbs among different types of language users.","PeriodicalId":51371,"journal":{"name":"Language Learning","volume":"121 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2025-10-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145382191","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Teacher–student interactions are crucial in language learning, often modulated by students’ emotional status. Although the interaction quality is known to be associated with improved learning outcomes, its effect in anxious contexts remains unclear. This study objectively captured students’ classroom anxiety using heart rate variability, and innovatively assessed teacher–student interaction quality with functional near‐infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) hyperscanning. We specifically explored how students’ anxiety levels and teacher–student interaction quality contribute to language learning. Results showed that higher anxiety levels were associated with higher teacher–student brain synchrony, which in turn negatively impacted students’ improvement in sentence complexity. This suggests that heightened anxiety may promote passive learning behaviors, leading students to rely more on their teacher and potentially hindering independent thought. Such dependence could limit language development by reducing active engagement and knowledge application. By integrating real‐time physiological and neuroimaging methods, this study advances our understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying effective language learning.
{"title":"Effect of Teacher–Student Interaction on Language Learning Under Anxiety: An fNIRS‐Based Hyperscanning Study","authors":"Jiaze Li, Yuhang Li, Hanyu Wang, Jielu Chen, Rihui Li, Haoyun Zhang","doi":"10.1111/lang.70013","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.70013","url":null,"abstract":"Teacher–student interactions are crucial in language learning, often modulated by students’ emotional status. Although the interaction quality is known to be associated with improved learning outcomes, its effect in anxious contexts remains unclear. This study objectively captured students’ classroom anxiety using heart rate variability, and innovatively assessed teacher–student interaction quality with functional near‐infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) hyperscanning. We specifically explored how students’ anxiety levels and teacher–student interaction quality contribute to language learning. Results showed that higher anxiety levels were associated with higher teacher–student brain synchrony, which in turn negatively impacted students’ improvement in sentence complexity. This suggests that heightened anxiety may promote passive learning behaviors, leading students to rely more on their teacher and potentially hindering independent thought. Such dependence could limit language development by reducing active engagement and knowledge application. By integrating real‐time physiological and neuroimaging methods, this study advances our understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying effective language learning.","PeriodicalId":51371,"journal":{"name":"Language Learning","volume":"356 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2025-10-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145382193","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This study examined the cross‐linguistic shareability of word recognition skills with a partial least squares structural equation model. A total of 199 Chinese‐speaking English learners were measured on their first (L1) and second language (L2) word form analysis skills (orthographic, phonological, and morphological processing skills) and L2 word recognition. The analysis demonstrated that (a) at the construct level, these L1 word form analysis skills systematically transferred to the corresponding L2 skills; (b) however, at the outcome level, their transfer to L2 word recognition differed: L1 phonological processing skills affected L2 word recognition directly and indirectly via L2 phonological processing skills, and L1 orthographic and morphological processing only indirectly affected L2 word recognition. We argued that there were fundamental differences in the cross‐linguistic shareability and thus transfer patterns across the word form analysis skills. These differences are crucial to our understanding of reading universals and L2 reading pedagogy.
{"title":"Cross‐Linguistic Shareability of Word Recognition Skills Among Chinese‐Speaking English Learners: A Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Model","authors":"Xiaomeng Li, Keiko Koda","doi":"10.1111/lang.70014","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.70014","url":null,"abstract":"This study examined the cross‐linguistic shareability of word recognition skills with a partial least squares structural equation model. A total of 199 Chinese‐speaking English learners were measured on their first (L1) and second language (L2) word form analysis skills (orthographic, phonological, and morphological processing skills) and L2 word recognition. The analysis demonstrated that (a) at the construct level, these L1 word form analysis skills systematically transferred to the corresponding L2 skills; (b) however, at the outcome level, their transfer to L2 word recognition differed: L1 phonological processing skills affected L2 word recognition directly and indirectly via L2 phonological processing skills, and L1 orthographic and morphological processing only indirectly affected L2 word recognition. We argued that there were fundamental differences in the cross‐linguistic shareability and thus transfer patterns across the word form analysis skills. These differences are crucial to our understanding of reading universals and L2 reading pedagogy.","PeriodicalId":51371,"journal":{"name":"Language Learning","volume":"53 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2025-10-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145382196","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Studies have explored the relationship between text readability and processing effort in second language (L2) reading—as evidenced by eye movements. However, these studies generally relied on short texts, raising concerns about the validity of the analyzed data. This study reexamined these relationships using open‐source eye‐tracking data from L2 English learners who read longer passages (those over 200 words). The passages were analyzed for different readability indices and various linguistic features, which were subsequently used to predict some passage‐level eye‐tracking measures. Bayesian analysis revealed that complex linguistic features, primarily lexical sophistication, play a significant role in predicting these measures. However, the benefits of using these features were not much greater than those of using readability indices or simple linguistic features, such as word and sentence length. This study concludes that simple linguistic features can be effective predictors of processing effort in L2 text reading, considering their interpretability and low computational cost.
{"title":"Revisiting Text Readability and Processing Effort in Second Language Reading: Bayesian Analysis of Eye‐Tracking Data","authors":"Shingo Nahatame, Kazuhiro Yamaguchi","doi":"10.1111/lang.70011","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.70011","url":null,"abstract":"Studies have explored the relationship between text readability and processing effort in second language (L2) reading—as evidenced by eye movements. However, these studies generally relied on short texts, raising concerns about the validity of the analyzed data. This study reexamined these relationships using open‐source eye‐tracking data from L2 English learners who read longer passages (those over 200 words). The passages were analyzed for different readability indices and various linguistic features, which were subsequently used to predict some passage‐level eye‐tracking measures. Bayesian analysis revealed that complex linguistic features, primarily lexical sophistication, play a significant role in predicting these measures. However, the benefits of using these features were not much greater than those of using readability indices or simple linguistic features, such as word and sentence length. This study concludes that simple linguistic features can be effective predictors of processing effort in L2 text reading, considering their interpretability and low computational cost.","PeriodicalId":51371,"journal":{"name":"Language Learning","volume":"27 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2025-10-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145397922","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The present study investigated how instruction across explicit versus implicit conditions interacts with aptitude to affect gains in the pronunciation of lexeme‐initial biconsonantal clusters among learners of English as a second language. The study further examined whether condition‐congruent aptitudes correlate with emotions that learners experience during instruction and whether and how such emotional reactions mediate the effect of condition‐congruent aptitudes on the learners’ pronunciation outcomes. Results from the general linear model analyses indicated a significant effect of instruction on pronunciation outcomes, as well as a superiority for explicit instruction compared with implicit instruction. The results further revealed a significant effect of the interaction of aptitude and instructional condition on the learners’ pronunciation gains. Condition‐congruent aptitudes were also found to correlate strongly with different emotions that learners experienced. Furthermore, the results of the mediated regression analyses in R revealed that emotions mediated the influence of condition‐congruent aptitudes on pronunciation outcomes.
{"title":"Gains in Pronunciation of Lexeme‐Initial Biconsonantal Clusters Among Second Language Learners: An Individual Differences–Treatment Interaction Design","authors":"Mohammad N. Karimi, Parisa Ashkani","doi":"10.1111/lang.70010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.70010","url":null,"abstract":"The present study investigated how instruction across explicit versus implicit conditions interacts with aptitude to affect gains in the pronunciation of lexeme‐initial biconsonantal clusters among learners of English as a second language. The study further examined whether condition‐congruent aptitudes correlate with emotions that learners experience during instruction and whether and how such emotional reactions mediate the effect of condition‐congruent aptitudes on the learners’ pronunciation outcomes. Results from the general linear model analyses indicated a significant effect of instruction on pronunciation outcomes, as well as a superiority for explicit instruction compared with implicit instruction. The results further revealed a significant effect of the interaction of aptitude and instructional condition on the learners’ pronunciation gains. Condition‐congruent aptitudes were also found to correlate strongly with different emotions that learners experienced. Furthermore, the results of the mediated regression analyses in R revealed that emotions mediated the influence of condition‐congruent aptitudes on pronunciation outcomes.","PeriodicalId":51371,"journal":{"name":"Language Learning","volume":"86 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2025-10-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145260694","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
A key debate in second language acquisition research revolves around the relative significance of explicit and implicit learning conditions in grammar learning. However, little is known about the potential of learners’ extramural (i.e., out‐of‐class) language use in fostering implicit and/or automatized knowledge as compared to explicit knowledge. Therefore, the present study investigated the effect of extramural English (EE) on implicit, automatized, and explicit knowledge among 13‐ to 14‐year‐old learners in Austria and Sweden (N = 213). According to the results generated by linear mixed models, EE use can predict implicit and/or automatized knowledge. The strength of this relationship seems to be influenced by the extent, starting age, and nature of EE use, with productive but also multimodal and highly interest‐driven activities showing the greatest effect. Explicit knowledge, however, was not affected by EE use. Overall, learner reports on the role of EE and instruction in grammar learning support the findings.
{"title":"Exploring the Potential of Extramural English in the Development of Implicit, Automatized, and Explicit Knowledge of Grammar","authors":"Alexandra Schurz","doi":"10.1111/lang.70008","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.70008","url":null,"abstract":"A key debate in second language acquisition research revolves around the relative significance of explicit and implicit learning conditions in grammar learning. However, little is known about the potential of learners’ extramural (i.e., out‐of‐class) language use in fostering implicit and/or automatized knowledge as compared to explicit knowledge. Therefore, the present study investigated the effect of extramural English (EE) on implicit, automatized, and explicit knowledge among 13‐ to 14‐year‐old learners in Austria and Sweden (<jats:italic>N</jats:italic> = 213). According to the results generated by linear mixed models, EE use can predict implicit and/or automatized knowledge. The strength of this relationship seems to be influenced by the extent, starting age, and nature of EE use, with productive but also multimodal and highly interest‐driven activities showing the greatest effect. Explicit knowledge, however, was not affected by EE use. Overall, learner reports on the role of EE and instruction in grammar learning support the findings.","PeriodicalId":51371,"journal":{"name":"Language Learning","volume":"86 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2025-10-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145241295","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The current study examined how children apply their phonological knowledge to recognize translation equivalents in a foreign language. Target words for recognition were either phonologically similar (cognate) or dissimilar (noncognate) to words they already knew in their first language. To examine how recognition of such words is impacted by their position in the utterance, target words were either embedded in an edge (Experiment 1) or non‐edge (Experiment 2) position in the carrier phrase. Results show that preschool‐aged children can recognize words from a foreign language when those words are phonologically similar to words they know in their first language, and this is not constrained by the word's location within an utterance. Children are at an advantage recognizing new lexical items in a new language if those items are similar in form to words they already know in their first language.
{"title":"Children's Foreign Word Recognition at First Exposure: The Role of Phonological Similarity and Utterance Position","authors":"Katie Von Holzen, Rochelle S. Newman","doi":"10.1111/lang.70009","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.70009","url":null,"abstract":"The current study examined how children apply their phonological knowledge to recognize translation equivalents in a foreign language. Target words for recognition were either phonologically similar (cognate) or dissimilar (noncognate) to words they already knew in their first language. To examine how recognition of such words is impacted by their position in the utterance, target words were either embedded in an edge (Experiment 1) or non‐edge (Experiment 2) position in the carrier phrase. Results show that preschool‐aged children can recognize words from a foreign language when those words are phonologically similar to words they know in their first language, and this is not constrained by the word's location within an utterance. Children are at an advantage recognizing new lexical items in a new language if those items are similar in form to words they already know in their first language.","PeriodicalId":51371,"journal":{"name":"Language Learning","volume":"17 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2025-09-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145088947","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Jonathan Malone, Bronson Hui, Nick Pandža, Tetiana Tytko
This study examined second language vocabulary processing and learning in reading only (RO) versus reading while listening (RWL). 119 English learners read or read‐while‐listening to a story embedded with 25 pseudowords, 10 times each, and had their eye movements tracked. Gaze duration (GD) and total reading time (TRT) measured processing of target vocabulary, and learning outcome tests included recognition and recall tests in both visual and auditory item modalities. Eye‐tracking analyses revealed (a) a significant decrease in GD and TRT for both groups, and (b) faster reading times and greater rate of decrease across instances in RO. All learning outcomes indicated superior scores from RWL in auditory items and item modality effects in RO, but not RWL, while a group‐by‐item‐modality interaction was uncovered on two of three outcomes. Results indicated a slightly slower multimodal reading process, with superior learning of phonological information from RWL, without detriment to orthographic learning.
{"title":"Eye Movements, Item Modality, and Multimodal Second Language Vocabulary Learning: Processing and Outcomes","authors":"Jonathan Malone, Bronson Hui, Nick Pandža, Tetiana Tytko","doi":"10.1111/lang.70007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.70007","url":null,"abstract":"This study examined second language vocabulary processing and learning in reading only (RO) versus reading while listening (RWL). 119 English learners read or read‐while‐listening to a story embedded with 25 pseudowords, 10 times each, and had their eye movements tracked. Gaze duration (GD) and total reading time (TRT) measured processing of target vocabulary, and learning outcome tests included recognition and recall tests in both visual and auditory item modalities. Eye‐tracking analyses revealed (a) a significant decrease in GD and TRT for both groups, and (b) faster reading times and greater rate of decrease across instances in RO. All learning outcomes indicated superior scores from RWL in auditory items and item modality effects in RO, but not RWL, while a group‐by‐item‐modality interaction was uncovered on two of three outcomes. Results indicated a slightly slower multimodal reading process, with superior learning of phonological information from RWL, without detriment to orthographic learning.","PeriodicalId":51371,"journal":{"name":"Language Learning","volume":"15 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2025-09-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145072538","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
We investigate what is learned from exposure to usage in verbal morphology using an error correction mechanism within an associative learning framework. We computationally simulated how second language (L2) learners would respond to naturalistic input of aspectual usage, characterized by “imperfect contingencies,” given two types of instructions: grammatical versus lexical. To test these predictions, English native speakers (N = 80) completed three online training sessions in two conditions (grammatical vs. lexical) over 3 days, learning 21 Polish verbs across 189 exposures; and a 63‐item posttest on Day 4 (50% seen, 50% grammatical). The results confirmed the simulation predictions: The grammatical group performed better through stronger performance in contexts that allow only one aspect; the lexical group was slightly better in contexts where both aspects were possible. Rules offer some advantage early on, especially when the exemplars are already unambiguous, whereas an exemplar‐based approach promises a more flexible system in the longer run.
{"title":"Error Correction Learning of Second Language Verbal Morphology: Associating Imperfect Contingencies in Naturalistic Frequency Distributions","authors":"Justyna Mackiewicz, Petar Milin, Dagmar Divjak","doi":"10.1111/lang.70006","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.70006","url":null,"abstract":"We investigate what is learned from exposure to usage in verbal morphology using an error correction mechanism within an associative learning framework. We computationally simulated how second language (L2) learners would respond to naturalistic input of aspectual usage, characterized by “imperfect contingencies,” given two types of instructions: grammatical versus lexical. To test these predictions, English native speakers (<jats:italic>N</jats:italic> = 80) completed three online training sessions in two conditions (grammatical vs. lexical) over 3 days, learning 21 Polish verbs across 189 exposures; and a 63‐item posttest on Day 4 (50% seen, 50% grammatical). The results confirmed the simulation predictions: The grammatical group performed better through stronger performance in contexts that allow only one aspect; the lexical group was slightly better in contexts where both aspects were possible. Rules offer some advantage early on, especially when the exemplars are already unambiguous, whereas an exemplar‐based approach promises a more flexible system in the longer run.","PeriodicalId":51371,"journal":{"name":"Language Learning","volume":"29 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2025-09-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145056719","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Kevin McManus, Kelly Bayas, Katherine Kerschen, Yulia Khoruzhaya, Jingyuan Zhuang, Alex Magnuson
We closely replicated Ellis and Sagarra (2010b), a seminal study that demonstrated clear effects of blocking in second language (L2) learning. In that study, English‐speaking learners completed different types of pretraining about Latin temporal expressions (adverbs, verbs, none) to investigate how knowledge about specific cues influenced L2 outcomes. Results showed that the type of pretraining strongly influenced interpretation and production. To date, however, no replication has fully confirmed these findings, resulting in open questions about the nature and role of blocking in L2 learning. Unlike prior studies, we addressed these concerns without modifying the initial study's materials and procedures. Our close replication did not confirm the initial study's findings due to performance following verb pretraining: Pretraining on verbs did not bias attention to verbs in subsequent use. Theoretical refinements and methodological implications of this replication study are discussed, especially roles for prior experience, competition, and the linguistic properties of cues.
{"title":"Revisiting Blocking Effects in Second Language Learning: A Close Replication of Ellis and Sagarra (2010b)","authors":"Kevin McManus, Kelly Bayas, Katherine Kerschen, Yulia Khoruzhaya, Jingyuan Zhuang, Alex Magnuson","doi":"10.1111/lang.70005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.70005","url":null,"abstract":"We closely replicated Ellis and Sagarra (2010b), a seminal study that demonstrated clear effects of blocking in second language (L2) learning. In that study, English‐speaking learners completed different types of pretraining about Latin temporal expressions (adverbs, verbs, none) to investigate how knowledge about specific cues influenced L2 outcomes. Results showed that the type of pretraining strongly influenced interpretation and production. To date, however, no replication has fully confirmed these findings, resulting in open questions about the nature and role of blocking in L2 learning. Unlike prior studies, we addressed these concerns without modifying the initial study's materials and procedures. Our close replication did not confirm the initial study's findings due to performance following verb pretraining: Pretraining on verbs did not bias attention to verbs in subsequent use. Theoretical refinements and methodological implications of this replication study are discussed, especially roles for prior experience, competition, and the linguistic properties of cues.","PeriodicalId":51371,"journal":{"name":"Language Learning","volume":"58 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2025-07-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144766105","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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