The present study used immersive virtual‐reality (iVR) technology to simulate a real‐life environment and examined its impact on novel‐word learning and lexicalization. On Days 1–3, Chinese‐speaking participants learned German words in iVR and traditional picture–word (PW) association contexts. A semantic‐priming task was used to measure word lexicalization on Day 4, and again 6 months later. The behavioral findings of an immediate posttest showed a larger semantic‐priming effect on iVR‐learned words compared to PW‐learned words. Moreover, electrophysiological results of the immediate posttest demonstrated significant semantic‐priming effects only for iVR‐learned words, such that related prime–target pairs elicited enhanced N400 amplitude compared to unrelated prime–target pairs. However, after 6 months, there were no differences between the iVR and PW conditions. The findings support the embodied‐cognition theory and dual‐coding theory and suggest that a virtual real‐life learning context with multimodal enrichment facilitates novel‐word learning and lexicalization but that these effects seem to disappear over time.
{"title":"Learning Novel Words in an Immersive Virtual‐Reality Context: Tracking Lexicalization Through Behavioral and Event‐Related‐Potential Measures","authors":"Lu Jiao, Yue Lin, John W. Schwieter, Cong Liu","doi":"10.1111/lang.12707","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12707","url":null,"abstract":"The present study used immersive virtual‐reality (iVR) technology to simulate a real‐life environment and examined its impact on novel‐word learning and lexicalization. On Days 1–3, Chinese‐speaking participants learned German words in iVR and traditional picture–word (PW) association contexts. A semantic‐priming task was used to measure word lexicalization on Day 4, and again 6 months later. The behavioral findings of an immediate posttest showed a larger semantic‐priming effect on iVR‐learned words compared to PW‐learned words. Moreover, electrophysiological results of the immediate posttest demonstrated significant semantic‐priming effects only for iVR‐learned words, such that related prime–target pairs elicited enhanced N400 amplitude compared to unrelated prime–target pairs. However, after 6 months, there were no differences between the iVR and PW conditions. The findings support the embodied‐cognition theory and dual‐coding theory and suggest that a virtual real‐life learning context with multimodal enrichment facilitates novel‐word learning and lexicalization but that these effects seem to disappear over time.","PeriodicalId":51371,"journal":{"name":"Language Learning","volume":"8 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2025-02-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143528382","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Mojtaba Tadayonifar, Anna Siyanova‐Chanturia, Irina Elgort
Learning multiword expressions (MWEs) typically involves exposure to language input, such as through reading and listening. However, this way of learning can be rather slow. Therefore, finding strategies to enhance learning from input is crucial for language acquisition. In this study, 80 Iranian learners of English as a foreign language read short texts with 28 figurative English phrasal verbs (PVs), repeated three times. In a counterbalanced experimental design, we manipulated definition placement (before vs. after text) and the lag of retrieval practice (short vs. long lag). Learning was measured via immediate and delayed gap‐fill and meaning‐generation posttests. We found that providing definitions after reading resulted in greater learning outcomes than presenting definitions before reading under both short‐ and long‐lag conditions. Retrieving PVs under the long lag further increased this advantage. The results contribute to the understanding of how contextual learning and retention of MWEs from reading can be supported.
{"title":"The Effects of Definition Placement and Lag of Retrieval Practice on Contextual Learning and Retention of Phrasal Verbs","authors":"Mojtaba Tadayonifar, Anna Siyanova‐Chanturia, Irina Elgort","doi":"10.1111/lang.12706","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12706","url":null,"abstract":"Learning multiword expressions (MWEs) typically involves exposure to language input, such as through reading and listening. However, this way of learning can be rather slow. Therefore, finding strategies to enhance learning from input is crucial for language acquisition. In this study, 80 Iranian learners of English as a foreign language read short texts with 28 figurative English phrasal verbs (PVs), repeated three times. In a counterbalanced experimental design, we manipulated definition placement (before vs. after text) and the lag of retrieval practice (short vs. long lag). Learning was measured via immediate and delayed gap‐fill and meaning‐generation posttests. We found that providing definitions after reading resulted in greater learning outcomes than presenting definitions before reading under both short‐ and long‐lag conditions. Retrieving PVs under the long lag further increased this advantage. The results contribute to the understanding of how contextual learning and retention of MWEs from reading can be supported.","PeriodicalId":51371,"journal":{"name":"Language Learning","volume":"5 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2025-02-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143393055","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"What Proactive Language Learning Theory Is and Is Not: A Response to Atkinson's Commentary","authors":"Mostafa Papi, Phil Hiver","doi":"10.1111/lang.12704","DOIUrl":"10.1111/lang.12704","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":51371,"journal":{"name":"Language Learning","volume":"75 1","pages":"337-342"},"PeriodicalIF":3.5,"publicationDate":"2025-01-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143055224","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Abundant research has indicated fluency features as meaningful predictors of second language proficiency. However, the extent to which different fluency dimensions and features can predict proficiency remains underexplored. This meta‐analysis employed a multilevel modeling approach to synthesize fluency–proficiency relationships from 71 empirical studies from 1959–2023. Additionally, we examined several moderator variables, including task type, learning context, age, and proficiency measure. The correlations found were strongly positive for speed (r = .55), moderately positive for productivity (r = .38), moderately negative for breakdown (r = −.33), and weakly negative for repair (r = −.11). Moderator analyses revealed that task, learning context, and proficiency measure influence fluency–proficiency relationships in the repair, productivity, and speed dimensions, respectively. Post hoc analyses also suggested that the operationalization of breakdown features might make a difference in fluency–proficiency relationships. This study has both theoretical and methodological implications for second language fluency research.
{"title":"Diving Deep Into the Relationship Between Speech Fluency and Second Language Proficiency: A Meta‐Analysis","authors":"Xun Yan, Yuyun Lei, Yulin Pan","doi":"10.1111/lang.12701","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12701","url":null,"abstract":"Abundant research has indicated fluency features as meaningful predictors of second language proficiency. However, the extent to which different fluency dimensions and features can predict proficiency remains underexplored. This meta‐analysis employed a multilevel modeling approach to synthesize fluency–proficiency relationships from 71 empirical studies from 1959–2023. Additionally, we examined several moderator variables, including task type, learning context, age, and proficiency measure. The correlations found were strongly positive for <jats:italic>speed</jats:italic> (<jats:italic>r</jats:italic> = .55), moderately positive for <jats:italic>productivity</jats:italic> (<jats:italic>r</jats:italic> = .38), moderately negative for <jats:italic>breakdown</jats:italic> (<jats:italic>r</jats:italic> = −.33), and weakly negative for <jats:italic>repair</jats:italic> (<jats:italic>r</jats:italic> = −.11). Moderator analyses revealed that task, learning context, and proficiency measure influence fluency–proficiency relationships in the repair, productivity, and speed dimensions, respectively. Post hoc analyses also suggested that the operationalization of breakdown features might make a difference in fluency–proficiency relationships. This study has both theoretical and methodological implications for second language fluency research.","PeriodicalId":51371,"journal":{"name":"Language Learning","volume":"42 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2025-01-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142968185","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
There is considerable lab‐based evidence for successful incidental learning, in which a learner's attention is directed away from the to‐be‐learned stimulus and towards another stimulus. In this study, we extend incidental learning research into the language learning classroom. Three groups of adult second language (L2) learners (N = 52) engaged in structured classroom Mandarin learning took part in an 8‐week study. One group served as a classroom‐only control group. The second group underwent additional intentional auditory training involving Mandarin speech and explicit feedback. The third group underwent additional incidental learning combined with nonspeech “perceptual building block” categories—categories that share critical perceptual dimensions with target L2 speech categories but that are not perceived as speech. We demonstrate that when supplemented with structured classroom learning, incidental learning involving nonspeech analogs promotes phonetic, category, and word learning equivalent to learning from more traditional intentional auditory training.
{"title":"Incidental Nonspeech Auditory Learning Scaffolds Phonetic, Category, and Word Learning in a Foreign Language Classroom","authors":"Seth Wiener, Timothy K. Murphy, Lori L. Holt","doi":"10.1111/lang.12700","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12700","url":null,"abstract":"There is considerable lab‐based evidence for successful incidental learning, in which a learner's attention is directed away from the to‐be‐learned stimulus and towards another stimulus. In this study, we extend incidental learning research into the language learning classroom. Three groups of adult second language (L2) learners (<jats:italic>N</jats:italic> = 52) engaged in structured classroom Mandarin learning took part in an 8‐week study. One group served as a classroom‐only control group. The second group underwent additional intentional auditory training involving Mandarin speech and explicit feedback. The third group underwent additional incidental learning combined with nonspeech “perceptual building block” categories—categories that share critical perceptual dimensions with target L2 speech categories but that are not perceived as speech. We demonstrate that when supplemented with structured classroom learning, incidental learning involving nonspeech analogs promotes phonetic, category, and word learning equivalent to learning from more traditional intentional auditory training.","PeriodicalId":51371,"journal":{"name":"Language Learning","volume":"4 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2025-01-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142967744","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Inferring the meaning of words and then verifying one's interpretations is widely believed to create relatively strong memories of the items. According to the available research, it is when the inferences are accurate that the learning outcomes are the most promising. The present study extends this inquiry to idioms. Fifty‐six ESL learners were presented with 21 English idioms (e.g., toe the line) in brief contexts and they were either prompted to infer the meaning of each idiom or they were given the meaning directly. After each inferencing attempt, the correct meaning was given as feedback. This initial learning stage was followed in the same session by a meaning‐recall task where the learners were again given the correct meanings as feedback. The results of a posttest administered one week later indicate that prompting learners to make inferences is beneficial compared to directly giving the meanings on condition that the inferencing was successful.
人们普遍认为，推断单词的意思，然后验证自己的解释，可以对这些单词产生相对强烈的记忆。根据现有的研究，当推理准确时，学习结果是最有希望的。本研究将这一研究扩展到习语。56名ESL学习者在简短的语境中看到21个英语习语（例如，toe the line），他们要么被提示去推断每个习语的意思，要么被直接告知每个习语的意思。在每次推理尝试后，给出正确的含义作为反馈。在最初的学习阶段之后，在同一个会话中，学习者再次被给予正确的含义作为反馈。一周后进行的后测结果表明，与在推理成功的情况下直接给出含义相比，提示学习者进行推理是有益的。
{"title":"Meaning‐Inferencing Versus Meaning‐Given Procedures: The Case of Idioms","authors":"Frank Boers, Xi Yu, Xiaofei Wang","doi":"10.1111/lang.12702","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12702","url":null,"abstract":"Inferring the meaning of words and then verifying one's interpretations is widely believed to create relatively strong memories of the items. According to the available research, it is when the inferences are accurate that the learning outcomes are the most promising. The present study extends this inquiry to idioms. Fifty‐six ESL learners were presented with 21 English idioms (e.g., <jats:italic>toe the line</jats:italic>) in brief contexts and they were either prompted to infer the meaning of each idiom or they were given the meaning directly. After each inferencing attempt, the correct meaning was given as feedback. This initial learning stage was followed in the same session by a meaning‐recall task where the learners were again given the correct meanings as feedback. The results of a posttest administered one week later indicate that prompting learners to make inferences is beneficial compared to directly giving the meanings on condition that the inferencing was successful.","PeriodicalId":51371,"journal":{"name":"Language Learning","volume":"118 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2025-01-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142939781","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The present study investigates the impact of bidialectalism on L2 production, focusing on the role of dialect modes. Shanghai–Mandarin Chinese bidialectal speakers were recruited to produce second language (L2) English vowels under the influence of either Shanghai or Mandarin Chinese mode. Results showed that in the Shanghai mode, participants’ English vowel production closely resembled that of native English speakers. Notably, Shanghai Chinese significantly influenced English vowel production in the Shanghai mode, and Mandarin Chinese had a strong impact on English vowel production in the Mandarin mode. This highlights that each first language (L1) dialect—that is, the activated dialect mode—significantly influences L2 English vowel production. The present study reveals that bidialectal speakers have differential L2 production performance depending on the L1 dialect mode that they activate. These results are interpreted within the framework of the second language linguistic perception (L2LP) model, contributing to the theoretical understanding of how L1 dialect modes influence L2 acquisition.
{"title":"Dialect‐Specific Modes Influence Second Language Production: Evidence From Bidialectal Shanghai–Mandarin Chinese Learners of English Within the Second Language Linguistic Perception Model","authors":"Xiaoluan Liu, Lan Bai, Paola Escudero","doi":"10.1111/lang.12699","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12699","url":null,"abstract":"The present study investigates the impact of bidialectalism on L2 production, focusing on the role of dialect modes. Shanghai–Mandarin Chinese bidialectal speakers were recruited to produce second language (L2) English vowels under the influence of either Shanghai or Mandarin Chinese mode. Results showed that in the Shanghai mode, participants’ English vowel production closely resembled that of native English speakers. Notably, Shanghai Chinese significantly influenced English vowel production in the Shanghai mode, and Mandarin Chinese had a strong impact on English vowel production in the Mandarin mode. This highlights that each first language (L1) dialect—that is, the activated dialect mode—significantly influences L2 English vowel production. The present study reveals that bidialectal speakers have differential L2 production performance depending on the L1 dialect mode that they activate. These results are interpreted within the framework of the second language linguistic perception (L2LP) model, contributing to the theoretical understanding of how L1 dialect modes influence L2 acquisition.","PeriodicalId":51371,"journal":{"name":"Language Learning","volume":"13 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2025-01-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142935042","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Studies looking into second language development have shown that findings about a group of learners cannot be transferred to individual learners. In this study, we explored ways to meaningfully group individuals starting from the data and investigated whether this grouping can give extra information about learning trajectories that goes beyond the individual learner. We followed 61 learners for 10 months, collected information about various individual difference variables at the start of the study, and investigated speaking development by collecting data on a weekly basis. We investigated whether it was possible to discern learner types through cluster analysis starting from five individual difference variables. This resulted in three learner types that differ from each other in their speaking development. Within each learner type, there are differences but also clear similarities across learners. The study shows that adopting a person‐centered approach to grouping learners can contribute to uncovering patterns in learners’ development.
{"title":"The Forest and the Trees: Investigating Groups and Individuals in Longitudinal Second Language English Speaking Development","authors":"Vanessa De Wilde, Wander Lowie","doi":"10.1111/lang.12698","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12698","url":null,"abstract":"Studies looking into second language development have shown that findings about a group of learners cannot be transferred to individual learners. In this study, we explored ways to meaningfully group individuals starting from the data and investigated whether this grouping can give extra information about learning trajectories that goes beyond the individual learner. We followed 61 learners for 10 months, collected information about various individual difference variables at the start of the study, and investigated speaking development by collecting data on a weekly basis. We investigated whether it was possible to discern learner types through cluster analysis starting from five individual difference variables. This resulted in three learner types that differ from each other in their speaking development. Within each learner type, there are differences but also clear similarities across learners. The study shows that adopting a person‐centered approach to grouping learners can contribute to uncovering patterns in learners’ development.","PeriodicalId":51371,"journal":{"name":"Language Learning","volume":"17 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2024-12-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142820759","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Second language (L2) viewing with captions (i.e., L2 on‐screen text) is now a proliferating as well as promising area of L2 acquisition research. The goal of the present meta‐analysis was to examine (a) the relationship between captioned viewing and incidental vocabulary learning and (b) what variables related to learners, treatment, methodology, and vocabulary tests moderate the captioning effect. Synthesizing 89 effect sizes from 49 primary studies (i.e., independent experiments), we fitted a multilevel meta‐analysis model with restricted maximum likelihood estimation to calculate the overall effect size based on a standardized mean difference of gain scores between captioned viewing and uncaptioned viewing groups. The results showed a medium effect of captioning on L2 vocabulary learning, g = 0.56, p <.001. Moderator analysis indicated moderating effects of instructional level, target audience of video materials, and administration of vocabulary pretest. These results are discussed with the aim of guiding future research and language learning through viewing.
带字幕的第二语言观看（即屏幕上的第二语言文本）现在是第二语言习得研究的一个激增且有前景的领域。本meta分析的目的是检验(a)观看字幕与附带词汇学习之间的关系，以及(b)与学习者、治疗、方法和词汇测试相关的哪些变量调节字幕效果。综合49项主要研究（即独立实验）的89个效应量，我们拟合了一个限制最大似然估计的多水平元分析模型，根据字幕观看组和未字幕观看组之间增益得分的标准化平均差异计算总体效应量。结果显示字幕对二语词汇学习的影响为中等，g = 0.56, p < 001。调节因素分析表明，教学水平、视频材料的目标受众和词汇前测的管理具有调节作用。本文对这些结果进行了讨论，旨在指导今后的研究和通过观看来学习语言。
{"title":"Incidental Vocabulary Acquisition Through Captioned Viewing: A Meta‐Analysis","authors":"Satsuki Kurokawa, Aung Myo Hein, Takumi Uchihara","doi":"10.1111/lang.12697","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12697","url":null,"abstract":"Second language (L2) viewing with captions (i.e., L2 on‐screen text) is now a proliferating as well as promising area of L2 acquisition research. The goal of the present meta‐analysis was to examine (a) the relationship between captioned viewing and incidental vocabulary learning and (b) what variables related to learners, treatment, methodology, and vocabulary tests moderate the captioning effect. Synthesizing 89 effect sizes from 49 primary studies (i.e., independent experiments), we fitted a multilevel meta‐analysis model with restricted maximum likelihood estimation to calculate the overall effect size based on a standardized mean difference of gain scores between captioned viewing and uncaptioned viewing groups. The results showed a medium effect of captioning on L2 vocabulary learning, <jats:italic>g</jats:italic> = 0.56, <jats:italic>p</jats:italic> <.001. Moderator analysis indicated moderating effects of instructional level, target audience of video materials, and administration of vocabulary pretest. These results are discussed with the aim of guiding future research and language learning through viewing.","PeriodicalId":51371,"journal":{"name":"Language Learning","volume":"61 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2024-12-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142804607","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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