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The purpose of this study was to describe the work of Jouki Nykänen, a midwife-public health nurse, in northern Finland in 1950-1987. The material for the study was collected by life-history interview. According to content analysis the work of the interviewee consisted of the following phases: 1) work as a midwife-public health nurse in the district of Sevettijärvi in 1950-1958, 2) work as a municipal midwife in Pyhäntä in 1958-1960, and 3) work as a midwife-public health nurse in the municipality of Karunki, in 1962-1987. In Sevettijärvi, planning and implementation of work were emphasized. The public health nurse-midwife worked whenever people needed her and when they came "to town". In Pyhantä, the clinics were well-organized. The work as a midwife-health nurse in Karunki was flexible, and another public health nurse also worked in the municipality. During home visits the interviewee took care of the whole family from the grandfather to the baby. The Public Health Act (1972) changed the character of the work: the number of home visits decreased and clinics fragmented into several fields of health care took the place of home visits, requiring efficiency and results. The results of the study showed the core of a midwife-public health nurse's work in a historically changing social context as well as the changes in the work between the postwar years and the present day.

The purpose of this article is to describe family identity as a strength and as part of the family functioning style. The concept of functioning style includes family identity, information sharing and resource mobilization. The article examines family identity in terms of a family's strengths in coping with seventh-grade adolescents' experiments with smoking, alcohol, and drugs. The data were gathered using interventive interviews and a questionnaire, in which family members (n = 14) assessed the strengths of the family. Finally, the families identified their strengths in a feedback discussion. Content analysis methods were used to analyze qualitative data according to the categories of family identity: commitment, values, time, a sense of purpose and uniformity (Dunst et. al. 1994, Mattus 1994a). Questionnaire data were analyzed quantitatively. The families identified commitment, values, a sense of purpose and uniformity to be the strengths in their family identity. They described commitment as sacrificing for others. The parents' aim was to strengthen adolescents' ability to resist the social pressure to experiment with drugs. The families were also confident in their ability to cope with these situations. It was important for both the parents and the adolescents to have a mutual understanding of what is important and of ways to spend their leisure time. The results indicate that these families possess strengths that enable them to support their adolescents' choices concerning health habits.

The purpose of this paper is to introduce a nursing science perspective to health research. The perspective is outlined using the following key concepts: life control, life situation, health and health choices, resources, and process of change. This conceptual system of health portrait includes concepts used to study health in nursing science. It also reflects a research approach by using empirical examples. As a starting-point, life control is assumed to be reflected in the life situation as well as in health and health choices. As a consequence, life control is also related to each individual's resources in everyday life. Further attention is given to the assessment of the process of change pertaining to health choices during the person's course of life. As an empirical example of the application of the "health portrait" conceptual system, a research project titled Health portrait of adolescents in Kainuu is presented. This project aims to develop an instrument for measuring life control, health and life situation, to evaluate this instrument and to analyze life control data elicited from adolescents. Another aim of this paper is to assess how well an instrument created on the basis of the nursing science and the method of interventive interview used here served as tools for analysing life control and health in the health checkups of school-aged adolescents. On the basis of the knowledge obtained through these analyses we will develop further the conceptual system of health portrait, which could be used as a guideline in health research.

Discussing sensitive racial and ethnicity issues in the classroom may predispose to heated confrontation if not a legal tangle between the professor and student(s). Students and faculty alike experience uncomfortable feelings in discussing or giving opinions are expressed concerning "isms" (e.g., sexism, socialism, paternalism, feminism, religiosity/spiritualism practices). To minimize the occurrence of this likely situation, implementing a reasoned, systematic mode of discourse is suggested. As a foundation for this approach, modern and contemporary ethical theories are reviewed, and Baldonado's Ethical Decision-Making Paradigm is used to illustrate choosing a morally accepted course of action (act). Implications of culturally sensitivity issues in the classroom, curriculum and nursing practice are presented.

Discoveries of linguistic terms relating to care/caring can create better understanding of diversities in expression and experiences of care of different cultures. Such linguistic understandings and discovery of "meaning-in-context" can enhance communication toward unity in light of diversity. In order to gain an understanding of expression of care/caring for Iranian immigrants in New South Wales, Australia, linguistic terms in the Persian language as discovered are described. The study, conceptualised within Leininger's theory of Culture Care diversity and universality led to the discovery of 31 linguistic care terms in the Persian language, reflecting the emic view of care for Iranian Immigrants in multicultural Australia. Using Leininger's ethnonursing research method and in depth naturalistic interviews, five types of care were abstracted from recurrent patterning and saturation according to type and meaning of care were discovered and described. The five categories describe care as: action; (hamoyat, parastari), thoughts; (ba-fakr-ham-boodan), reflecting family ties; (hambastegie), care as being Iranian, reflecting Iranian identity; (inhamani, hamonandi). Finally, care as related to context and expressed in safety and peace; (amnieyat, aramash), describing Australia as a safe and peaceful place to live. This paper will attempt to share an Iranian immigrants' emic view of care.

The purpose of this study is to describe and understand the process of parental coping with diabetic children in early childhood. The parental coping process was followed for a four-week period after the diagnosis of diabetes. The parents of two girls whose diabetes was diagnosed in early childhood served as study subjects. The data were collected by interviewing and observing the parents over four separate periods, first in hospital and later at home. The data were analyzed by the timeseries and content analysis methods. The main categories were formulated on the basis of coping theories. The subcategories were developed inductively from the data. Six phases of the parental coping were identified, which were named: 1). Disbelief, 2). Lack of information and Guilt, 3). Learning of Care, 4). Normalization, 5). Uncertainty and 6). Reorganization. In the different phases of parental coping the parents' experience of stress, coping strategies and sense of control varied. In the phase of Disbelief, parents tried to explain away the child's diabetes by questioning the diagnosis. The initial information given to the parents regarding their child's diabetes proved to be very important for parental coping. In the second phase of Lacking Information and Guilt, the parents sought for a reason for their child's diabetes and they felt guilty about it. As coping responses, the parents sought support from each other and from people who have undergone the same experience. In the Learning of Care phase, they recognized the demands caused by diabetes and took responsibility for the child's care. The parents responded that supervision based on their problems was the best. In the Normalization phase, the parents prepared to go home with the diabetic child. Getting back to normal life was one of the most effective parental coping responses. In the Uncertainty phase, the care to be given to the diabetic child changed the daily routines of the family. In the Reorganization phase, the parents adapted to the diagnosis of diabetes and the care of the diabetic child. The parents felt that the life of the family became normalized and controlled. The important parental coping responses consisted of concrete models of functioning, which they developed to control the demands caused by the child's diabetes.

This literature review describes the work that has been done in the field of nursing research on growth into fatherhood starting from pregnancy and through the infant's first year of life. The purpose is to describe and analyse the existing research knowledge on this subject. The material of this review consists of 56 articles derived from the Cinahl (1983/1995) and Medline (1966-9/1995) databases using the keywords father, fathers, fathering and fatherhood. The method of content analysis was employed. The focal concern was with the contents of the articles and with the research designs and methods used. Five main content areas were identified: man's health, growth from manhood into fatherhood from the points of view stress and social support, fatherhood as a significant life experience, the relationship between father and child, the couple relationship and family functioning. It is obvious that more information is needed in Finland on male processes also in nursing research so that we can better understand those processes and further improve nursing interventions. Male processes have primarily been studied by using quantitative methods and cross-sectional settings. The main difficulties with the studies have been their small sample sizes and accordingly lack of generalizability. More qualitative information is required so that we can reach a deeper understanding on male processes, expectations and wishes.

Caring reflections on diversity and universality originate "in that time so new and so unlike any other before...", of the Discovery of America, where an exceptional encounter with difference brought together two unknown halves of humanity and the commencement of modernity. A reflective comparison describes Diversity and Universality as previous models of Other and Self inducing a philosophical way of considering caring while associating two fundamental principles: the equality of cultures and the recognition of their cultural differences.

The aim of this study was to describe the family caregivers' expectations of the respite care of demented patients. The data was collected using structured theme interviews. The participants (n = 15) of this study were family members of patients suffering from moderate or severe dementia. The family caregivers used respite care as a mode of support either regularly or occasionally. The data was analyzed using content analysis and classified in categories based on the theoretical frame of the study. The results imply that family caregivers expect information concerning dementia, its causes as well as care possibilities. Above all the family caregivers expressed the need to know about the existing support services: domestic help, day care or respite care, voluntary nursing services etc. Also the severe need for psychological support was revealed. Family caregivers wished to have more opportunities to discuss the oppressive matters with the nursing staff. Health professionals need to know more about the family members as well as their expectations and perceptions. That enables them to intervene more effectively to ease the burden of adjustment and facilitate the continuous involvement in care.