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A review of current safe distance calculations and the risk of mild traumatic brain injury 对当前安全距离计算和轻度脑外伤风险的审查
IF 1.7 4区 工程技术 Q3 MECHANICS Pub Date : 2024-08-24 DOI: 10.1007/s00193-024-01197-y
A. R. Loflin, C. E. Johnson

Explosive breaching is a tactic operational professionals use to gain rapid entry and tactical advantage. This tactic exposes individuals to repeated low-level blasts (LLB), overpressure exposure generally occurring from user-directed munitions. The experimentation described in this paper highlights the need for further research into implementing explosives in tactical situations, specifically in confined areas, and the effects on individuals exposed. While current safety calculations predict peak pressures from an open-air detonation, this study incorporates the impulse of the total explosive event in a confined space. Sixteen explosive events were conducted to measure peak overpressures of the total duration of the event using pencil probes and flush mount-type sensors. These pressure sensors measured detonations at distances greater than or equal to the calculated minimum safe distances (MSD). The study compares these data with the Hopkinson–Cranz scaling law, the Weibull formula, and Kingery–Bulmash (KB) predictions. Additionally, a scaled mouse-to-human model for developing mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) using pressure vs. impulse (PI) graphs demonstrates areas of concern in the collected data. Results show that at distances exceeding the MSD, with personal protective equipment (PPE), and at pressures lower than those considered safe, mTBI is possible. Peak overpressures were measured to be 2.5 times higher than safety thresholds and impulses as high as 274 kPa ms. Confined area detonations produced 1.2–1.4 times greater pressures than open-air detonation measurements. Individuals who undergo breaching training will likely experience multiple exposures of this nature throughout their career, often occurring in rapid succession.

爆破是专业作战人员用来快速进入并获得战术优势的一种战术。这种战术会使人员暴露在反复的低空爆炸(LLB)中,超压暴露通常发生在用户定向弹药中。本文中描述的实验突出表明,有必要进一步研究在战术情况下(特别是在密闭区域)使用爆炸物的情况,以及对暴露人员的影响。目前的安全计算方法预测的是露天爆炸产生的峰值压力,而本研究则考虑了密闭空间内整个爆炸事件的冲力。共进行了 16 次爆炸活动,使用铅笔探头和嵌入式传感器测量活动总持续时间的峰值超压。这些压力传感器测量到的爆炸距离大于或等于计算出的最小安全距离 (MSD)。该研究将这些数据与霍普金森-克兰兹缩放定律、威布尔公式和 Kingery-Bulmash (KB) 预测进行了比较。此外,还利用压力与冲力(P-I)曲线图,建立了轻微脑损伤(mTBI)的小鼠与人体比例模型,展示了所收集数据中值得关注的地方。结果表明,在距离超过 MSD 的情况下,使用个人防护设备 (PPE),以及在压力低于安全值的情况下,轻微脑损伤是可能发生的。测量到的峰值超压比安全阈值高 2.5 倍,脉冲高达 274 kPa ms。密闭区域引爆产生的压力是露天引爆测量值的 1.2-1.4 倍。接受爆破训练的人员在其职业生涯中可能会经历多次此类性质的爆破,而且往往是接二连三地发生。
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引用次数: 0
Microwave radar diagnostics of piston motion in a free-piston-driven expansion tube 微波雷达诊断自由活塞驱动膨胀管中的活塞运动
IF 1.7 4区 工程技术 Q3 MECHANICS Pub Date : 2024-08-24 DOI: 10.1007/s00193-024-01194-1
Y. Kurosaka, K. Shimamura

Application of microwave radar is a useful approach to gauge piston motion in a free-piston driver. One difficulty associated with conventional microwave technique is its spatial resolution during rapid velocity shifts at diaphragm rupture timings. This study, while departing from the standard practice of analyzing standing wave peaks, introduces an alternative by examining the phase shift of the microwave in-phase and quadrature signals. A compact free-piston-driven expansion tube, MX6.0, is used as the test bed for this technique. A microwave frequency of 4.2 GHz is used to take measurements in a compression tube with a diameter of 50 mm and a length of 2.0 m, tracking the motion of the piston. After arranging the microwave radar systems, the piston velocity and displacement trajectory are measured. Compared to the lower-resolution measurements using conventional microwave wavelength intervals, the use of microwave phase allowed for an exceptionally high spatial resolution in analyzing the piston motion.

应用微波雷达是测量自由活塞驱动装置中活塞运动的有效方法。与传统微波技术相关的一个困难是,它在隔膜破裂时速度快速变化时的空间分辨率。本研究不同于分析驻波峰值的标准做法,而是通过检查微波同相和正交信号的相移来引入一种替代方法。MX6.0 是一种紧凑型自由活塞驱动膨胀管,被用作该技术的试验台。在直径为 50 毫米、长度为 2.0 米的压缩管中使用 4.2 千兆赫的微波频率进行测量,跟踪活塞的运动。在布置微波雷达系统后,测量活塞的速度和位移轨迹。与使用传统微波波长间隔进行的低分辨率测量相比,使用微波相位可在分析活塞运动时获得极高的空间分辨率。
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引用次数: 0
Characterization of a supersonic mixed-compression air intake at high back pressures 高背压条件下的超音速混合压缩进气口特性分析
IF 1.7 4区 工程技术 Q3 MECHANICS Pub Date : 2024-07-21 DOI: 10.1007/s00193-024-01192-3
N. Khobragade, J. Gustavsson, R. Kumar

The back pressure rise in a supersonic air intake could affect the engine performance and, in extreme conditions, result in a catastrophic unstart phenomenon. The present study compares different back pressure states that occur during an unstart of a mixed-compression air intake at Mach 3 using a fast-response pressure-sensitive paint, with an emphasis on the isolator flow. At low back pressure, the isolator dynamics is strongly correlated with the unsteadiness around the external compression corner. At high back pressure, a normal shock train dictates the isolator flowfield from its leading shock foot downstream. At the onset of unstart, an oblique shock train transpires involving large-scale flow separation, boundary layer thickening, and mitigated unsteadiness at the isolator floor. Like in previous studies, the prominence of low-frequency unsteadiness and upstream wave propagation is observed at high back pressure. However, in addition, the present study shows strong upstream communication of back pressure in a narrow frequency band through acoustic mechanisms, that eventually leads to the intake unstart. At the onset of unstart, the prominent frequency varies linearly along the isolator length, matching closely with the half-wave resonator model. Suppressing the oscillations at the preferred frequencies could be a promising control strategy to mitigate or delay intake unstart. When the intake unstarts, a 3D bifurcated shock stands at the inlet and the unsteady flow spillage takes place around oblique shocks off the sidewalls at low frequencies.

超音速进气道中的背压上升会影响发动机性能,在极端条件下会导致灾难性的非启动现象。本研究使用快速反应压敏涂料,比较了混合压缩进气口在马赫数 3 下未启动时出现的不同背压状态,重点是隔离器流动。在低背压下,隔离器的动态与外部压缩角周围的不稳定性密切相关。在高背压条件下,正常的冲击系决定了从其前导冲击脚向下游的隔振器流场。在非起动开始时,会出现一个斜向冲击系,其中包括大规模的流场分离、边界层增厚以及隔离器底部的不稳定性减弱。与之前的研究一样,在高背压条件下,低频不稳定性和上游波的传播更为显著。然而,本研究还显示,在窄频段内,背压通过声学机制向上游传播,最终导致进气道非启动。非启动开始时,突出频率沿隔离器长度线性变化,与半波谐振器模型非常吻合。抑制首选频率的振荡可能是减轻或延迟进气道非启动的一种有效控制策略。当进气道未启动时,入口处会出现三维分叉冲击,低频时不稳定流会围绕侧壁上的斜冲击溢出。
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引用次数: 0
Investigating the blast shielding effect of the Beirut silos 调查贝鲁特筒仓的防爆效果
IF 1.7 4区 工程技术 Q3 MECHANICS Pub Date : 2024-07-17 DOI: 10.1007/s00193-024-01189-y
G.-P. Zéhil

The Beirut port explosion on August 4, 2020, caused extensive destruction and significant casualties, prompting inquiries into its scale and impact on neighboring structures. Speculation arose regarding the role of the nearby port silos in shielding western Beirut from the blast. This study leverages insights from previous research and uses a tailored blast wave propagation model to settle the debate on the silos’ effectiveness in mitigating blast impacts. The analysis challenges prevailing notions: firstly, that the silos offered substantial protection, and secondly, the assumption linking the transient “window” phenomenon in the Wilson cloud to a similar opening in the preceding pressure front. Contrary to expectation, the pressure at the shock front remains continuous, albeit lower on the leeward side behind the silos. Downstream lateral regions experience pressure amplification due to the constructive interference of waves diffracted around the silos, with significant attenuation observed close (10 m) behind them—approximately 12%, 58%, and 2% of free-air values for overpressure, specific impulse, and specific energy, respectively. However, this shielding effect diminishes with distance, with the blast wave intensity largely restored at 450 m. Consequently, the silos’ shadowing effect was limited to nearby port structures and part of the Lebanese navy base, which still incurred severe damage. The lesser impact on western Beirut is attributed to its greater distance from the explosion rather than the silos’ protective influence. These findings suggest a reevaluation of urban disaster mitigation strategies, emphasizing geographical positioning over structural barriers and advocating for a holistic approach to urban resilience.

2020 年 8 月 4 日发生的贝鲁特港口爆炸造成了大规模破坏和重大人员伤亡,引发了对爆炸规模和对周边建筑影响的调查。人们猜测,附近的港口筒仓在保护贝鲁特西部免受爆炸影响方面发挥了作用。本研究利用了先前研究的见解,并使用了一个量身定制的爆炸波传播模型,以解决有关筒仓在减轻爆炸影响方面的作用的争论。分析结果对普遍的观点提出了质疑:首先,筒仓提供了实质性保护;其次,将威尔逊云中的瞬时 "窗口 "现象与之前压力前沿的类似开口联系起来的假设。与预期相反,冲击前沿的压力保持连续,尽管筒仓后背风面的压力较低。由于筒仓周围衍射波的建设性干扰,下游横向区域出现了压力放大现象,在筒仓后方近距离(10 米)观察到明显的衰减现象--过压、比冲和比能量分别约为自由空气值的 12%、58% 和 2%。因此,筒仓的阴影效应仅限于附近的港口建筑和黎巴嫩海军基地的部分建筑,这些建筑仍遭受了严重破坏。贝鲁特西部受到的影响较小,这是因为其距离爆炸更远,而不是筒仓的保护作用。这些研究结果表明,应重新评估城市减灾战略,强调地理位置而非结构性障碍,并提倡采用综合方法提高城市抗灾能力。
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引用次数: 0
Data-scarce surrogate modeling of shock-induced pore collapse process 冲击诱发孔隙坍塌过程的数据稀缺替代模型
IF 1.7 4区 工程技术 Q3 MECHANICS Pub Date : 2024-07-13 DOI: 10.1007/s00193-024-01177-2
S. W. Cheung, Y. Choi, H. K. Springer, T. Kadeethum

Understanding the mechanisms of shock-induced pore collapse is of great interest in various disciplines in sciences and engineering, including materials science, biological sciences, and geophysics. However, numerical modeling of the complex pore collapse processes can be costly. To this end, a strong need exists to develop surrogate models for generating economic predictions of pore collapse processes. In this work, we study the use of a data-driven reduced-order model, namely dynamic mode decomposition, and a deep generative model, namely conditional generative adversarial networks, to resemble the numerical simulations of the pore collapse process at representative training shock pressures. Since the simulations are expensive, the training data are scarce, which makes training an accurate surrogate model challenging. To overcome the difficulties posed by the complex physics phenomena, we make several crucial treatments to the plain original form of the methods to increase the capability of approximating and predicting the dynamics. In particular, physics information is used as indicators or conditional inputs to guide the prediction. In realizing these methods, the training of each dynamic mode composition model takes only around 30 s on CPU. In contrast, training a generative adversarial network model takes 8 h on GPU. Moreover, using dynamic mode decomposition, the final-time relative error is around 0.3% in the reproductive cases. We also demonstrate the predictive power of the methods at unseen testing shock pressures, where the error ranges from 1.3 to 5% in the interpolatory cases and 8 to 9% in extrapolatory cases.

了解冲击诱发孔隙塌陷的机理是科学和工程学各学科(包括材料科学、生物科学和地球物理学)的一大兴趣所在。然而,对复杂的孔隙坍塌过程进行数值建模可能成本高昂。为此,我们亟需开发代用模型,以便对孔隙坍塌过程进行经济预测。在这项工作中,我们研究了如何使用数据驱动的降阶模型(即动态模式分解)和深度生成模型(即条件生成对抗网络)来模拟具有代表性的训练冲击压力下的孔隙坍塌过程。由于模拟昂贵,训练数据稀少,因此训练精确的代用模型具有挑战性。为了克服复杂物理现象带来的困难,我们对方法的原始形式进行了一些关键处理,以提高近似和预测动力学的能力。其中,物理信息被用作指导预测的指标或条件输入。在实现这些方法的过程中,每个动态模式组成模型的训练在 CPU 上仅需 30 秒左右。相比之下,在 GPU 上训练一个生成式对抗网络模型需要 8 小时。此外,使用动态模式分解,最终时间相对误差在生殖情况下约为 0.3%。我们还证明了这些方法在未见测试冲击压力时的预测能力,其中内推情况下的误差范围为 1.3%至 5%,外推情况下的误差范围为 8%至 9%。
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引用次数: 0
Air-breathing rotating detonation engine supplied with liquid kerosene: propulsive performance and combustion stability 使用液态煤油的喷气旋转爆燃发动机:推进性能和燃烧稳定性
IF 2.2 4区 工程技术 Q3 MECHANICS Pub Date : 2024-07-02 DOI: 10.1007/s00193-024-01185-2
W. Perkowski, A. Bilar, M. Augustyn, M. Kawalec

Experimental results are presented for a rotating detonation engine supplied with liquid kerosene and preheated air without liquid or gaseous additions to the propellant mixture. Various combustion modes for the generic combustor geometry design were observed—from deflagration, through pulsed combustion and high-frequency instabilities, to stable detonation propagation. Attention was paid to detonation stability (if present), its characteristics, and the propulsive performance of the combustor with a focus on specific thrust and pressure gain through thrust and outlet total pressure measurement. These parameters measured for the observed modes were compared. The stability of the detonation combustion proved not to be critical to achieve high performance of the combustion chamber. For example, high performance was achieved for combustion modes with high-frequency instabilities.

本文介绍了旋转爆轰发动机的实验结果,该发动机使用液态煤油和预热空气,推进剂混合物中未添加液态或气态添加物。观察了通用燃烧器几何设计的各种燃烧模式--从爆燃到脉冲燃烧和高频不稳定性,再到稳定的爆轰传播。通过测量推力和出口总压,关注了爆燃稳定性(如果存在)、其特征以及燃烧器的推进性能,重点是比推力和压力增益。对观察到的模式测量到的这些参数进行了比较。事实证明,起爆燃烧的稳定性对于实现燃烧室的高性能并不重要。例如,具有高频不稳定性的燃烧模式也能实现高性能。
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引用次数: 0
Two-dimensional detailed numerical simulation of ammonia/hydrogen/air detonation: hydrogen concentration effects and transverse detonation wave structure 氨/氢/空气爆轰的二维详细数值模拟:氢浓度效应和横向爆轰波结构
IF 2.2 4区 工程技术 Q3 MECHANICS Pub Date : 2024-06-24 DOI: 10.1007/s00193-024-01181-6
S. Kohama, T. Ito, N. Tsuboi, K. Ozawa, A. K. Hayashi

Numerical simulations on ammonia/hydrogen/air detonation are performed using a detailed reaction model to investigate the cellular instability and detonation dynamics as a function of hydrogen content. The UT-LCS model that includes 32 species and 213 elementary reactions is used in the present simulations. The fifth-order target compact nonlinear scheme captured the unstable detonation dynamics and the complicated flow structure including the propagation of a sub-transverse wave. The simulation performed with different hydrogen dilutions shows that the detonation propagates at the Chapman–Jouguet velocity for all cases, and the cell size for the ammonia/hydrogen mixing ratio (alpha =0.3) becomes approximately 10 times larger than that for (alpha =1.0) (hydrogen/air mixture). A transverse detonation produces a finescale cellular structure on the computed maximum pressure history. This complex shock formation is similar to those of a spinning detonation and two-dimensional propane/oxygen detonation. The cellular irregularity increases with decreasing hydrogen content because ammonia destabilizes the detonation cellular structure with a reduced activation energy of more than approximately 8.

利用详细的反应模型对氨/氢/空气引爆进行了数值模拟,以研究细胞不稳定性和引爆动力学与氢含量的函数关系。UT-LCS模型包括32个物种和213个基本反应。五阶目标紧凑非线性方案捕捉了不稳定的引爆动力学和复杂的流动结构,包括亚横波的传播。不同氢稀释度的模拟结果表明,在所有情况下,爆轰都以 Chapman-Jouguet 速度传播,氨/氢混合比 (alpha =0.3)时的单元大小大约是 (alpha =1.0)(氢/空气混合物)时的 10 倍。在计算的最大压力历史上,横向爆轰产生了细尺度的蜂窝结构。这种复杂的冲击形成类似于旋转爆轰和二维丙烷/氧气爆轰。蜂窝的不规则性随着氢含量的降低而增加,这是因为氨破坏了起爆蜂窝结构的稳定性,其活化能降低了约8以上。
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引用次数: 0
Heat and momentum losses in ({text {H}}_{2})–({text {O}}_{2})–({text {N}}_{2}/{textrm{Ar}}) detonations: on the existence of set-valued solutions with detailed thermochemistry $${text {H}}_{2}$ - $${text {O}}_{2}$ - $${text {N}}_{2}/{textrm{Ar}}$ 爆炸中的热量和动量损失:关于存在详细热化学的集值解法
IF 1.7 4区 工程技术 Q3 MECHANICS Pub Date : 2024-06-21 DOI: 10.1007/s00193-024-01182-5
F. Veiga-López, L. Faria, J. Melguizo-Gavilanes

The effect of heat and momentum losses on the steady solutions admitted by the reactive Euler equations with sink/source terms is examined for stoichiometric hydrogen–oxygen mixtures. Varying degrees of nitrogen and argon dilution are considered in order to access a wide range of effective activation energies, (E_{textrm{a,eff}}/R_{textrm{u}}T_{0}), when using detailed thermochemistry. The main results of the study are discussed via detonation velocity-friction coefficient (D(c_{textrm{f}})) curves. The influence of the mixture composition is assessed, and classical scaling for the prediction of the velocity deficits, (D(c_{textrm{f,crit}})/D_{textrm{CJ}}), as a function of the effective activation energy, ({E}_{textrm{a,eff}}/R_{textrm{u}} T_{0}), is revisited. Notably, a map outlining the regions where set-valued solutions exist in the (E_{textrm{a,eff}}/R_{textrm{u}}T_{0}text {--}{alpha }) space is provided, with (alpha ) denoting the momentum–heat loss similarity factor, a free parameter in the current study.

针对化学计量氢氧混合物,研究了热量和动量损失对带有汇/源项的反应欧拉方程所接纳的稳定解的影响。考虑了不同程度的氮气和氩气稀释,以便在使用详细的热化学方法时获得广泛的有效活化能(E_{textrm{a,eff}}/R_{textrm{u}}T_{0}/)。研究的主要结果通过爆速-摩擦系数(D-(c_textrm{f}})曲线进行讨论。对混合物成分的影响进行了评估,并重新讨论了预测速度缺陷的经典比例((D(c_{textrm{f,crit}})/D_{textrm{CJ}})作为有效活化能(({E}_{textrm{a,eff}}/R_{textrm{u}} T_{0})的函数。值得注意的是,我们提供了一张地图,勾勒出在({E}_{textrm{a,eff}}/R_{textrm{u}}T_{0}text {--}{alpha }) 空间中存在集合值解的区域,其中(alpha )表示动量-热损失相似因子,在当前研究中是一个自由参数。
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引用次数: 0
Numerical investigation of the unsteady flow and wave dynamics in a wave rotor combustor 波状转子燃烧器中的非稳定流和波动力学数值研究
IF 1.7 4区 工程技术 Q3 MECHANICS Pub Date : 2024-06-03 DOI: 10.1007/s00193-024-01178-1
R. Zheng, J. Li, E. Gong, Q. Qin, Z. Feng

The pressure gain combustion in wave rotors has the potential to significantly enhance the performance of gas turbine engines. Wave rotor design focuses on understanding the complex behavior of rotating channels, which is challenging due to high rotational speeds. To investigate the influence of different working conditions on the unsteady process within the wave rotor combustor, a simplified 24-channel model was established to study both the unsteady flow and the wave dynamics. The calculations indicate that, for the current port position adopted and a rotor speed of 4000 rpm, backflow occurs at the inlet port for various inlet pressures. By analyzing the working sequence of the wave rotor combustor, it is found that the inlet port does not close in time when the pre-compression wave returns. This delay results in reflected expansion waves or compression waves moving within the channel, which affect a portion of the pressure gain, leading to a damped sinusoidal trend in the pressure profiles within the channel. The optimal pre-pressurization effect can be achieved at a rotor speed of 2000 rpm for the test conditions considered, and the total pressure gain achieved was 6.3%. By adding hot-jet ignition, it is found that the shock wave and flame interact at least five times in the current simulation. The shock–flame interaction can greatly accelerate the process of chemical reactions. After the fourth interaction, the shock wave achieved local coupling with the flame, forming a local high-pressure area of 4 bar, verifying the effectiveness of the wave rotor as a constant-volume supercharging device.

波形转子中的增压燃烧有可能显著提高燃气涡轮发动机的性能。波形转子设计的重点是了解旋转通道的复杂行为,而由于转速较高,这一点具有挑战性。为了研究不同工作条件对波浪转子燃烧器内非稳态过程的影响,我们建立了一个简化的 24 通道模型来研究非稳态流动和波浪动力学。计算结果表明,在当前采用的端口位置和 4000 转/分钟的转子速度下,不同的入口压力都会在入口端口出现回流。通过分析波形转子燃烧器的工作顺序,可以发现当预压缩波返回时,进气口不会及时关闭。这种延迟会导致反射膨胀波或压缩波在通道内移动,从而影响部分压力增益,导致通道内的压力曲线出现阻尼正弦波趋势。在所考虑的试验条件下,转子转速为 2000 rpm 时可达到最佳预压效果,实现的总压力增益为 6.3%。通过加入热喷射点火,可以发现冲击波和火焰在当前模拟中至少发生了五次相互作用。冲击波与火焰的相互作用可大大加快化学反应的进程。在第四次相互作用后,冲击波实现了与火焰的局部耦合,形成了一个 4 巴的局部高压区,验证了波转子作为恒容增压装置的有效性。
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引用次数: 0
Predicting detonation cell size of biogas–oxygen mixtures using machine learning models 利用机器学习模型预测沼气-氧气混合物的引爆单元大小
IF 2.2 4区 工程技术 Q3 MECHANICS Pub Date : 2024-06-03 DOI: 10.1007/s00193-024-01164-7
S. Siatkowski, K. Wacko, J. Kindracki

Detonation cell size is a very important parameter describing the detonation process, used both for explosion safety analysis and for the design of detonation combustion chambers. Typically it has been studied either experimentally or by CFD simulations; both options are costly in terms of money and time. However, progress in the machine learning (ML) methods opened a third way of obtaining cell size. When trained properly, such models are capable of giving rapid, accurate predictions. Utilization of machine learning in the combustion field is gaining more attention from the research community. In this study, the process of training, testing, and evaluation of three different machine learning models for predicting biogas–oxygen mixture detonation cell size is presented. The models include: linear regression (LR), support vector regression (SVR), and neural network (NN). The dataset used for training and testing comes from the experimental studies conducted previously by the authors. It was shown that all the models give very good results with support vector regression proving to be the best.

起爆单元尺寸是描述起爆过程的一个非常重要的参数,既可用于爆炸安全分析,也可用于起爆燃烧室的设计。通常情况下,我们通过实验或 CFD 模拟对其进行研究;这两种方法都需要耗费大量的金钱和时间。然而,机器学习(ML)方法的进步为获取电池尺寸提供了第三种方法。如果训练得当,这些模型能够提供快速、准确的预测。机器学习在燃烧领域的应用正日益受到研究界的关注。在本研究中,介绍了用于预测沼气-氧气混合物引爆电池尺寸的三种不同机器学习模型的训练、测试和评估过程。这些模型包括:线性回归(LR)、支持向量回归(SVR)和神经网络(NN)。用于训练和测试的数据集来自作者之前进行的实验研究。结果表明,所有模型都取得了非常好的结果,其中支持向量回归被证明是最好的。
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引用次数: 0
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