Pub Date : 2021-10-18DOI: 10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-010822
E. Ellis
Human use of land has been transforming Earth's ecology for millennia. From hunting and foraging to burning the land to farming to industrial agriculture, increasingly intensive human use of land has reshaped global patterns of biodiversity, ecosystems, landscapes, and climate. This review examines recent evidence from archaeology, paleoecology, environmental history, and model-based reconstructions that reveal a planet largely transformed by land use over more than 10,000 years. Although land use has always sustained human societies, its ecological consequences are diverse and sometimes opposing, both degrading and enriching soils, shrinking wild habitats and shaping novel ones, causing extinctions of some species while propagating and domesticating others, and both emitting and absorbing the greenhouse gases that cause global climate change. By transforming Earth's ecology, land use has literally paved the way for the Anthropocene. Now, a better future depends on land use strategies that can effectively sustain people together with the rest of terrestrial nature on Earth's limited land.
{"title":"Land Use and Ecological Change: A 12,000-Year History","authors":"E. Ellis","doi":"10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-010822","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-010822","url":null,"abstract":"Human use of land has been transforming Earth's ecology for millennia. From hunting and foraging to burning the land to farming to industrial agriculture, increasingly intensive human use of land has reshaped global patterns of biodiversity, ecosystems, landscapes, and climate. This review examines recent evidence from archaeology, paleoecology, environmental history, and model-based reconstructions that reveal a planet largely transformed by land use over more than 10,000 years. Although land use has always sustained human societies, its ecological consequences are diverse and sometimes opposing, both degrading and enriching soils, shrinking wild habitats and shaping novel ones, causing extinctions of some species while propagating and domesticating others, and both emitting and absorbing the greenhouse gases that cause global climate change. By transforming Earth's ecology, land use has literally paved the way for the Anthropocene. Now, a better future depends on land use strategies that can effectively sustain people together with the rest of terrestrial nature on Earth's limited land.","PeriodicalId":7982,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Environment and Resources","volume":"106 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":16.4,"publicationDate":"2021-10-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"75729419","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-08-23DOI: 10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-101430
Ben Caldecott, A. Clark, Krister Koskelo, Ellie Mulholland, Conor Hickey
Environment factors, particularly those related to climate change, are stranding or could strand assets across different sectors and geographies with significant implications for economies, companies, financial institutions, communities, and workers. In this review, we focus on physical climate change, biodiversity loss, and litigation related to environmental factors as causes of stranded assets. We also review the emerging literature on the consequences of asset stranding for society before turning to some of the key supervisory responses that are emerging to ensure that stranded assets are measured and managed, particularly by financial institutions. These are among the areas of the stranded assets literature that have been growing most rapidly since 2015, and we focus on the literature produced since then. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Volume 46 is October 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
{"title":"Stranded Assets: Environmental Drivers, Societal Challenges, and Supervisory Responses","authors":"Ben Caldecott, A. Clark, Krister Koskelo, Ellie Mulholland, Conor Hickey","doi":"10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-101430","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-101430","url":null,"abstract":"Environment factors, particularly those related to climate change, are stranding or could strand assets across different sectors and geographies with significant implications for economies, companies, financial institutions, communities, and workers. In this review, we focus on physical climate change, biodiversity loss, and litigation related to environmental factors as causes of stranded assets. We also review the emerging literature on the consequences of asset stranding for society before turning to some of the key supervisory responses that are emerging to ensure that stranded assets are measured and managed, particularly by financial institutions. These are among the areas of the stranded assets literature that have been growing most rapidly since 2015, and we focus on the literature produced since then. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Volume 46 is October 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.","PeriodicalId":7982,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Environment and Resources","volume":"56 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":16.4,"publicationDate":"2021-08-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"76726390","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-08-23DOI: 10.1146/annurev-environ-050120-113117
K. Seto, G. Churkina, A. Hsu, Meredith Keller, Peter W. G. Newman, B. Qin, A. Ramaswami
This article provides a systematic review of the literature on net-zero carbon cities, their objectives and key features, current efforts, and performance. We discuss how net-zero differs from low-carbon cities, how different visions of a net-zero carbon city relate to urban greenhouse gas accounting, deep decarbonization pathways and their application to cities and urban infrastructure systems, net-zero carbon cities in theory versus practice, lessons learned from net-zero carbon city plans and implementation, and opportunities and challenges in transitioning toward net-zero carbon citie across both sectors and various spatial fabrics within cities. We conclude that it is possible fors cities to get to or near net-zero carbon, but this requires systemic transformation. Crucially, a city cannot achieve net-zero by focusing only on reducing emissions within its administrative boundaries, particularly in how it can enable sequestering of carbon from the atmosphere. Because of carbon lock-in, and the complex interplay between urban infrastructure and behavior, strategic sequencing of mitigation action is essential for cities to achieve net-zero. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Volume 46 is October 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
{"title":"From Low- to Net-Zero Carbon Cities: The Next Global Agenda","authors":"K. Seto, G. Churkina, A. Hsu, Meredith Keller, Peter W. G. Newman, B. Qin, A. Ramaswami","doi":"10.1146/annurev-environ-050120-113117","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-050120-113117","url":null,"abstract":"This article provides a systematic review of the literature on net-zero carbon cities, their objectives and key features, current efforts, and performance. We discuss how net-zero differs from low-carbon cities, how different visions of a net-zero carbon city relate to urban greenhouse gas accounting, deep decarbonization pathways and their application to cities and urban infrastructure systems, net-zero carbon cities in theory versus practice, lessons learned from net-zero carbon city plans and implementation, and opportunities and challenges in transitioning toward net-zero carbon citie across both sectors and various spatial fabrics within cities. We conclude that it is possible fors cities to get to or near net-zero carbon, but this requires systemic transformation. Crucially, a city cannot achieve net-zero by focusing only on reducing emissions within its administrative boundaries, particularly in how it can enable sequestering of carbon from the atmosphere. Because of carbon lock-in, and the complex interplay between urban infrastructure and behavior, strategic sequencing of mitigation action is essential for cities to achieve net-zero. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Volume 46 is October 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.","PeriodicalId":7982,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Environment and Resources","volume":"15 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":16.4,"publicationDate":"2021-08-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"77358638","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-08-23DOI: 10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-102307
S. Villamayor-Tomas, Gustavo García-López
Over the past few years, studies in political ecology and environmental justice have been increasingly connecting the commons and social movements empirically, giving shape to a new, distinctive body of research on commons movements. In our review, we first organize and synthesize empirical lessons from this body of literature. We then highlight recent theoretical efforts made by scholars to both bridge and transcend the gap between the theory of the commons and social movement theory. As we illustrate, movements can help create and strengthen commons institutions and discourses, as well as rescale them horizontally and vertically. This is particularly evident in the context of rural community-rights movements in the global South, as well as in new water and food commons movements and community-energy movements in both the global South and North. Commons institutions, in turn, can serve as the basis of social mobilization and become a key frame for social movements, as shown in the context of local environmental justice and livelihoods conflicts and anti-privatization struggles. Tensions and contradictions of commons-movement dynamics also exist and reflect trade-offs between diversity versus uniformization and organizational closure versus expansion of discourses and practices. Theoretically, there is an opportunity to cross boundaries from the theory of the commons to social movement theory and vice versa, e.g., by highlighting the role of political opportunities and framing, and biophysical factors and polycentricity, respectively. More importantly, a new commons movements theory is emerging focusing on cross-scalar organizations, the virtuous cycles between commons projects and mobilization, and the processes of commons-making. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Volume 46 is October 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
{"title":"Commons Movements: Old and New Trends in Rural and Urban Contexts","authors":"S. Villamayor-Tomas, Gustavo García-López","doi":"10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-102307","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-102307","url":null,"abstract":"Over the past few years, studies in political ecology and environmental justice have been increasingly connecting the commons and social movements empirically, giving shape to a new, distinctive body of research on commons movements. In our review, we first organize and synthesize empirical lessons from this body of literature. We then highlight recent theoretical efforts made by scholars to both bridge and transcend the gap between the theory of the commons and social movement theory. As we illustrate, movements can help create and strengthen commons institutions and discourses, as well as rescale them horizontally and vertically. This is particularly evident in the context of rural community-rights movements in the global South, as well as in new water and food commons movements and community-energy movements in both the global South and North. Commons institutions, in turn, can serve as the basis of social mobilization and become a key frame for social movements, as shown in the context of local environmental justice and livelihoods conflicts and anti-privatization struggles. Tensions and contradictions of commons-movement dynamics also exist and reflect trade-offs between diversity versus uniformization and organizational closure versus expansion of discourses and practices. Theoretically, there is an opportunity to cross boundaries from the theory of the commons to social movement theory and vice versa, e.g., by highlighting the role of political opportunities and framing, and biophysical factors and polycentricity, respectively. More importantly, a new commons movements theory is emerging focusing on cross-scalar organizations, the virtuous cycles between commons projects and mobilization, and the processes of commons-making. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Volume 46 is October 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.","PeriodicalId":7982,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Environment and Resources","volume":"28 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":16.4,"publicationDate":"2021-08-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"82566203","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-08-20DOI: 10.1146/annurev-environ-012320-054809
A. Arneth, Lennart Olsson, A. Cowie, K. Erb, Margot A. Hurlbert, W. Kurz, A. Mirzabaev, M. Rounsevell
Land degradation continues to be an enormous challenge to human societies, reducing food security, emitting greenhouse gases and aerosols, driving the loss of biodiversity, polluting water, and undermining a wide range of ecosystem services beyond food supply and water and climate regulation. Climate change will exacerbate several degradation processes. Investment in diverse restoration efforts, including sustainable agricultural and forest land management, as well as land set aside for conservation wherever possible, will generate co-benefits for climate change mitigation and adaptation and more broadly for human and societal well-being and the economy. This review highlights the magnitude of the degradation problem and some of the key challenges for ecological restoration. There are biophysical as well as societal limits to restoration. Better integrating policies to jointly address poverty, land degradation, and greenhouse gas emissions and removals is fundamental to reducing many existing barriers and contributing to climate-resilient sustainable development. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Volume 46 is October 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
{"title":"Restoring Degraded Lands","authors":"A. Arneth, Lennart Olsson, A. Cowie, K. Erb, Margot A. Hurlbert, W. Kurz, A. Mirzabaev, M. Rounsevell","doi":"10.1146/annurev-environ-012320-054809","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-012320-054809","url":null,"abstract":"Land degradation continues to be an enormous challenge to human societies, reducing food security, emitting greenhouse gases and aerosols, driving the loss of biodiversity, polluting water, and undermining a wide range of ecosystem services beyond food supply and water and climate regulation. Climate change will exacerbate several degradation processes. Investment in diverse restoration efforts, including sustainable agricultural and forest land management, as well as land set aside for conservation wherever possible, will generate co-benefits for climate change mitigation and adaptation and more broadly for human and societal well-being and the economy. This review highlights the magnitude of the degradation problem and some of the key challenges for ecological restoration. There are biophysical as well as societal limits to restoration. Better integrating policies to jointly address poverty, land degradation, and greenhouse gas emissions and removals is fundamental to reducing many existing barriers and contributing to climate-resilient sustainable development. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Volume 46 is October 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.","PeriodicalId":7982,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Environment and Resources","volume":"90 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":16.4,"publicationDate":"2021-08-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"82276540","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-08-20DOI: 10.1146/annurev-environ-041020-063132
Daniel J. Ingram, L. Coad, E. Milner‐Gulland, Luke Parry, D. Wilkie, M. Bakarr, A. Benítez‐López, E. Bennett, R. Bodmer, G. Cowlishaw, H. R. E. Bizri, H. Eves, J. Fa, C. Golden, D. M. Iponga, N. Minh, T. Morcatty, R. Mwinyihali, R. Nasi, V. Nijman, Y. Ntiamoa-Baidu, F. Pattiselanno, C. Peres, Madhu Rao, John G. Robinson, J. Rowcliffe, Ciara A. Stafford, Miriam Supuma, F. Tarla, N. Vliet, M. Wieland, K. Abernethy
Several hundred species are hunted for wild meat in the tropics, supporting the diets, customs, and livelihoods of millions of people. However, unsustainable hunting is one of the most urgent threats to wildlife and ecosystems worldwide and has serious ramifications for people whose subsistence and income are tied to wild meat. Over the past 18 years, although research efforts have increased, scientific knowledge has largely not translated into action. One major barrier to progress has been insufficient monitoring and evaluation, meaning that the effectiveness of interventions cannot be ascertained. Emerging issues include the difficulty of designing regulatory frameworks that disentangle the different purposes of hunting, the large scale of urban consumption, and the implications of wild meat consumption for human health. To address these intractable challenges, we propose eight new recommendations for research and action for sustainable wild meat use, which would support the achievement of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Volume 46 is October 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
{"title":"Wild Meat Is Still on the Menu: Progress in Wild Meat Research, Policy, and Practice from 2002 to 2020","authors":"Daniel J. Ingram, L. Coad, E. Milner‐Gulland, Luke Parry, D. Wilkie, M. Bakarr, A. Benítez‐López, E. Bennett, R. Bodmer, G. Cowlishaw, H. R. E. Bizri, H. Eves, J. Fa, C. Golden, D. M. Iponga, N. Minh, T. Morcatty, R. Mwinyihali, R. Nasi, V. Nijman, Y. Ntiamoa-Baidu, F. Pattiselanno, C. Peres, Madhu Rao, John G. Robinson, J. Rowcliffe, Ciara A. Stafford, Miriam Supuma, F. Tarla, N. Vliet, M. Wieland, K. Abernethy","doi":"10.1146/annurev-environ-041020-063132","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-041020-063132","url":null,"abstract":"Several hundred species are hunted for wild meat in the tropics, supporting the diets, customs, and livelihoods of millions of people. However, unsustainable hunting is one of the most urgent threats to wildlife and ecosystems worldwide and has serious ramifications for people whose subsistence and income are tied to wild meat. Over the past 18 years, although research efforts have increased, scientific knowledge has largely not translated into action. One major barrier to progress has been insufficient monitoring and evaluation, meaning that the effectiveness of interventions cannot be ascertained. Emerging issues include the difficulty of designing regulatory frameworks that disentangle the different purposes of hunting, the large scale of urban consumption, and the implications of wild meat consumption for human health. To address these intractable challenges, we propose eight new recommendations for research and action for sustainable wild meat use, which would support the achievement of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Volume 46 is October 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.","PeriodicalId":7982,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Environment and Resources","volume":"32 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":16.4,"publicationDate":"2021-08-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"75628948","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-08-04DOI: 10.1146/annurev-environ-020220-061831
P. Donti, J. Z. Kolter
In recent years, machine learning has proven to be a powerful tool for deriving insights from data. In this review, we describe ways in which machine learning has been leveraged to facilitate the development and operation of sustainable energy systems. We first provide a taxonomy of machine learning paradigms and techniques, along with a discussion of their strengths and limitations. We then provide an overview of existing research using machine learning for sustainable energy production, delivery, and storage. Finally, we identify gaps in this literature, propose future research directions, and discuss important considerations for deployment. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Volume 46 is October 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
{"title":"Machine Learning for Sustainable Energy Systems","authors":"P. Donti, J. Z. Kolter","doi":"10.1146/annurev-environ-020220-061831","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-020220-061831","url":null,"abstract":"In recent years, machine learning has proven to be a powerful tool for deriving insights from data. In this review, we describe ways in which machine learning has been leveraged to facilitate the development and operation of sustainable energy systems. We first provide a taxonomy of machine learning paradigms and techniques, along with a discussion of their strengths and limitations. We then provide an overview of existing research using machine learning for sustainable energy production, delivery, and storage. Finally, we identify gaps in this literature, propose future research directions, and discuss important considerations for deployment. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Volume 46 is October 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.","PeriodicalId":7982,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Environment and Resources","volume":"1 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":16.4,"publicationDate":"2021-08-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"72773126","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-08-02DOI: 10.1146/annurev-environ-012420-045120
J. Galloway, A. Bleeker, J. Erisman
More food and energy allow for more people who then require more food and energy, and so it has gone for centuries. At the same time, economic progress leads to a different lifestyle with an increasing demand for energy and food, also accelerating food waste. Fueling this food-energy-population dynamic is an ever-increasing conversion of unreactive dinitrogen (N2) to reactive N (Nr), which then results in a cascade of positive (food and energy for people) and negative (damage to people, climate, biodiversity, and environment) impacts as Nr is distributed throughout Earth systems. The most important step in reducing the environmental impacts of Nr is limiting its human-based creation. In this article, therefore, we focus on this most important first step: the conversion of N2 to Nr by human activities. Specifically, we examine Nr creation and use (they are different!) on a global and regional basis and Nr use on a global and regional per capita basis. In addition, we introduce the metric Nr Use Index (NUI), which can be used to track and project Nr use relative to a fixed point in time. We then assess the progress in Nr management over the past 20 years. Our article presents a case study of the Netherlands to show what one country, beset by Nr-related problems that have led to an N crisis, did to address those problems and what worked and what didn't work. The article concludes with an assessment of what the future might hold with respect to Nr creation and use, including a review of other projections. We expect that NUI will increase especially in Asia, Latin America, and Africa. The other parts of the world are consolidating or even decreasing NUI. In Latin America and Asia, there is limited agricultural land, and by increasing NUI for food the risk of Nr pollution is very high. The Netherlands has shown not only what effects can be expected with increasing NUI but also what successful policies can be introduced to limit environmental losses. Our assessment shows that Nr creation needs to be limited to prevent local to global environmental impacts. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Volume 46 is October 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
{"title":"The Human Creation and Use of Reactive Nitrogen: A Global and Regional Perspective","authors":"J. Galloway, A. Bleeker, J. Erisman","doi":"10.1146/annurev-environ-012420-045120","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-012420-045120","url":null,"abstract":"More food and energy allow for more people who then require more food and energy, and so it has gone for centuries. At the same time, economic progress leads to a different lifestyle with an increasing demand for energy and food, also accelerating food waste. Fueling this food-energy-population dynamic is an ever-increasing conversion of unreactive dinitrogen (N2) to reactive N (Nr), which then results in a cascade of positive (food and energy for people) and negative (damage to people, climate, biodiversity, and environment) impacts as Nr is distributed throughout Earth systems. The most important step in reducing the environmental impacts of Nr is limiting its human-based creation. In this article, therefore, we focus on this most important first step: the conversion of N2 to Nr by human activities. Specifically, we examine Nr creation and use (they are different!) on a global and regional basis and Nr use on a global and regional per capita basis. In addition, we introduce the metric Nr Use Index (NUI), which can be used to track and project Nr use relative to a fixed point in time. We then assess the progress in Nr management over the past 20 years. Our article presents a case study of the Netherlands to show what one country, beset by Nr-related problems that have led to an N crisis, did to address those problems and what worked and what didn't work. The article concludes with an assessment of what the future might hold with respect to Nr creation and use, including a review of other projections. We expect that NUI will increase especially in Asia, Latin America, and Africa. The other parts of the world are consolidating or even decreasing NUI. In Latin America and Asia, there is limited agricultural land, and by increasing NUI for food the risk of Nr pollution is very high. The Netherlands has shown not only what effects can be expected with increasing NUI but also what successful policies can be introduced to limit environmental losses. Our assessment shows that Nr creation needs to be limited to prevent local to global environmental impacts. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Volume 46 is October 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.","PeriodicalId":7982,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Environment and Resources","volume":"76 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":16.4,"publicationDate":"2021-08-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"78115175","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-07-23DOI: 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-012220-012127
Eduardo S Brondízio, Y. Aumeeruddy‐Thomas, P. Bates, J. Cariño, Á. Fernández‐Llamazares, M. F. Ferrari, K. Galvin, V. Reyes‐García, P. McElwee, Z. Molnár, Aibek Samakov, U. Shrestha
The knowledge, values, and practices of Indigenous peoples and local communities offer ways to understand and better address social-environmental problems. The article reviews the state of the literature on this topic by focusing on six pathways by which Indigenous peoples and local communities engage with management of and relationships to nature. These are ( a) undertaking territorial management practices and customary governance, ( b) contributing to nature conservation and restoration efforts with regional to global implications, ( c) co-constructing knowledge for assessments and monitoring, ( d) countering the drivers of unsustainable resource use and resisting environmental injustices, ( e) playing key roles in environmental governance across scales, and ( f ) offering alternative conceptualizations of the interrelations between people and nature. The review shows that through these pathways Indigenous peoples and local communities are making significant contributions to managing the health of local and regional ecosystems, to producing knowledge based in diverse values of nature, confronting societal pressures and environmental burdens, and leading and partnering in environmental governance. These contributions have local to global implications but have yet to be fully recognized in conservation and development polices, and by society at large. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Volume 46 is October 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
{"title":"Locally Based, Regionally Manifested, and Globally Relevant: Indigenous and Local Knowledge, Values, and Practices for Nature","authors":"Eduardo S Brondízio, Y. Aumeeruddy‐Thomas, P. Bates, J. Cariño, Á. Fernández‐Llamazares, M. F. Ferrari, K. Galvin, V. Reyes‐García, P. McElwee, Z. Molnár, Aibek Samakov, U. Shrestha","doi":"10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-012220-012127","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-012220-012127","url":null,"abstract":"The knowledge, values, and practices of Indigenous peoples and local communities offer ways to understand and better address social-environmental problems. The article reviews the state of the literature on this topic by focusing on six pathways by which Indigenous peoples and local communities engage with management of and relationships to nature. These are ( a) undertaking territorial management practices and customary governance, ( b) contributing to nature conservation and restoration efforts with regional to global implications, ( c) co-constructing knowledge for assessments and monitoring, ( d) countering the drivers of unsustainable resource use and resisting environmental injustices, ( e) playing key roles in environmental governance across scales, and ( f ) offering alternative conceptualizations of the interrelations between people and nature. The review shows that through these pathways Indigenous peoples and local communities are making significant contributions to managing the health of local and regional ecosystems, to producing knowledge based in diverse values of nature, confronting societal pressures and environmental burdens, and leading and partnering in environmental governance. These contributions have local to global implications but have yet to be fully recognized in conservation and development polices, and by society at large. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Volume 46 is October 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.","PeriodicalId":7982,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Environment and Resources","volume":"167 4 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":16.4,"publicationDate":"2021-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"73268557","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-07-06DOI: 10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-012320-084937
H. Saunders, J. Roy, I. Azevedo, Debalina Chakravarty, S. Dasgupta, Stephane de la Rue du Can, A. Druckman, R. Fouquet, M. Grubb, Boqiang Lin, R. Lowe, R. Madlener, Daire McCoy, L. Mundaca, T. Oreszczyn, S. Sorrell, D. Stern, Kanako Tanaka, T. Wei
This article presents a critical assessment of 40 years of research that may be brought under the umbrella of energy efficiency, spanning different aggregations and domains—from individual producing and consuming agents to economy-wide effects to the role of innovation to the influence of policy. After 40 years of research, energy efficiency initiatives are generally perceived as highly effective. Innovation has contributed to lowering energy technology costs and increasing energy productivity. Energy efficiency programs in many cases have reduced energy use per unit of economic output and have been associated with net improvements in welfare, emission reductions, or both. Rebound effects at the macro level still warrant careful policy attention, as they may be nontrivial. Complexity of energy efficiency dynamics calls for further methodological and empirical advances, multidisciplinary approaches, and granular data at the service level for research in this field to be of greatest societal benefit. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Volume 46 is October 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
{"title":"Energy Efficiency: What Has Research Delivered in the Last 40 Years?","authors":"H. Saunders, J. Roy, I. Azevedo, Debalina Chakravarty, S. Dasgupta, Stephane de la Rue du Can, A. Druckman, R. Fouquet, M. Grubb, Boqiang Lin, R. Lowe, R. Madlener, Daire McCoy, L. Mundaca, T. Oreszczyn, S. Sorrell, D. Stern, Kanako Tanaka, T. Wei","doi":"10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-012320-084937","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1146/ANNUREV-ENVIRON-012320-084937","url":null,"abstract":"This article presents a critical assessment of 40 years of research that may be brought under the umbrella of energy efficiency, spanning different aggregations and domains—from individual producing and consuming agents to economy-wide effects to the role of innovation to the influence of policy. After 40 years of research, energy efficiency initiatives are generally perceived as highly effective. Innovation has contributed to lowering energy technology costs and increasing energy productivity. Energy efficiency programs in many cases have reduced energy use per unit of economic output and have been associated with net improvements in welfare, emission reductions, or both. Rebound effects at the macro level still warrant careful policy attention, as they may be nontrivial. Complexity of energy efficiency dynamics calls for further methodological and empirical advances, multidisciplinary approaches, and granular data at the service level for research in this field to be of greatest societal benefit. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Volume 46 is October 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.","PeriodicalId":7982,"journal":{"name":"Annual Review of Environment and Resources","volume":"54 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":16.4,"publicationDate":"2021-07-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"82245826","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"环境科学与生态学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
京公网安备 11010802042870号
京ICP备2023020795号-1
扫码关注我们
求助内容：
应助结果提醒方式：