Pub Date : 2009-09-08DOI: 10.1504/IJBT.2009.028104
O. Doering, W. Tyner
US and International Policies Affecting Liquid Biofuels' Expansion and Profitability. Biofuel expansion and profitability is driven by more than just biofuel policy. While direct policies such as subsidies and mandates are analysed, issues such as exchange rates, the blending wall, land use, and indirect greenhouse gas impacts, as well as petroleum prices, greatly affect biofuels' expansion and profitability. The linkage between petroleum prices, ethanol prices and corn prices can be broken when ethanol supplies hit the blending wall. Finally, environmental product performance standards as a condition for renewable standards/subsidies may be an effective mechanism to meet environmental concerns.
{"title":"US and international policies affecting liquid biofuels' expansion and profitability","authors":"O. Doering, W. Tyner","doi":"10.1504/IJBT.2009.028104","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1504/IJBT.2009.028104","url":null,"abstract":"US and International Policies Affecting Liquid Biofuels' Expansion and Profitability. Biofuel expansion and profitability is driven by more than just biofuel policy. While direct policies such as subsidies and mandates are analysed, issues such as exchange rates, the blending wall, land use, and indirect greenhouse gas impacts, as well as petroleum prices, greatly affect biofuels' expansion and profitability. The linkage between petroleum prices, ethanol prices and corn prices can be broken when ethanol supplies hit the blending wall. Finally, environmental product performance standards as a condition for renewable standards/subsidies may be an effective mechanism to meet environmental concerns.","PeriodicalId":91506,"journal":{"name":"International journal of biotechnology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2009-09-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1504/IJBT.2009.028104","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"66713945","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2008-11-20DOI: 10.1504/IJBT.2008.021307
C. Milne
The basic thesis of this paper is that the R&D sector of the new medicines' business is experiencing evolutionary stress. Due to the failure of the regulatory framework and applied sciences to keep pace with advances in discovery, there is a bottleneck in the development phase of R&D. While improved process may help, there are still problems related to the products themselves, such as the need to move from a population-based model of product development, in which one size fits all, to a more targeted approach based on specialty drugs for patient subpopulations. The old paradigm dominated by big pharma and blockbusters must evolve, in order for a new bio-pharmaceutical paradigm to emerge. Despite the challenge that the fates of the pharmaceutical and biotech sectors are currently intertwined, it may be the dark before the dawn that betokens real change.
{"title":"Fixing the paradigm for biopharmaceutical R&D: Where to start?","authors":"C. Milne","doi":"10.1504/IJBT.2008.021307","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1504/IJBT.2008.021307","url":null,"abstract":"The basic thesis of this paper is that the R&D sector of the new medicines' business is experiencing evolutionary stress. Due to the failure of the regulatory framework and applied sciences to keep pace with advances in discovery, there is a bottleneck in the development phase of R&D. While improved process may help, there are still problems related to the products themselves, such as the need to move from a population-based model of product development, in which one size fits all, to a more targeted approach based on specialty drugs for patient subpopulations. The old paradigm dominated by big pharma and blockbusters must evolve, in order for a new bio-pharmaceutical paradigm to emerge. Despite the challenge that the fates of the pharmaceutical and biotech sectors are currently intertwined, it may be the dark before the dawn that betokens real change.","PeriodicalId":91506,"journal":{"name":"International journal of biotechnology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2008-11-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1504/IJBT.2008.021307","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"66713549","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2008-11-20DOI: 10.1504/IJBT.2008.021309
A. Kraft, H. Rothman
This paper tracks the development of genomics between 1990 and 2005 principally within the US context and reviews that development with specific respect to early expectations of genomics-based pharmaceutical innovation, the initial claims made for it, and the realities of its current position. Emphasis is placed on relations between the genomics sector and its larger pharmaceutical and biotechnology counterparts, and to the financial markets on which drug innovation ultimately rests. The analysis combines historical and sociological approaches to the study of innovation, and situates genomics within the wider context of the commercialisation of the life sciences. In particular, we highlight and reflect critically on the disparity between the expectations and 'hype' surrounding genomics, and assess its impact, to date, on pharmaceutical innovation.
{"title":"Genomics-based drug innovation: visions and commercial viability","authors":"A. Kraft, H. Rothman","doi":"10.1504/IJBT.2008.021309","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1504/IJBT.2008.021309","url":null,"abstract":"This paper tracks the development of genomics between 1990 and 2005 principally within the US context and reviews that development with specific respect to early expectations of genomics-based pharmaceutical innovation, the initial claims made for it, and the realities of its current position. Emphasis is placed on relations between the genomics sector and its larger pharmaceutical and biotechnology counterparts, and to the financial markets on which drug innovation ultimately rests. The analysis combines historical and sociological approaches to the study of innovation, and situates genomics within the wider context of the commercialisation of the life sciences. In particular, we highlight and reflect critically on the disparity between the expectations and 'hype' surrounding genomics, and assess its impact, to date, on pharmaceutical innovation.","PeriodicalId":91506,"journal":{"name":"International journal of biotechnology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2008-11-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1504/IJBT.2008.021309","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"66713640","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2008-11-20DOI: 10.1504/IJBT.2008.021312
A. Rosiello
This paper describes Scottish Enterprise (SE) 'Framework for Action' in life sciences and examines its effectiveness through the lenses of cluster theory and selected concepts from the literature on market and systemic failure. The focus is on the framework's capability to improve the competitive performances of biotechnology firms and strengthen networks. The empirical study gathers the views of the managers and technical directors of 18 Scottish biotechnology companies and provides insights as regards firms' locational choices, collaborative and commercial strategy and the materialisation of a local socio-institutional infrastructure. Easy access to finance, infrastructure, Intellectual Property (IP) and skilled people remain crucial for the achievement of strategic goals. Simultaneously, local and distant networks are beginning to emerge and to have a positive impact on firms' capability to expand research and, to a lesser extent, reach global markets. Scottish companies seem to benefit from mechanisms that reduce cognitive distance locally and the impact of geographical distance from foreign partners.
{"title":"Examining Scottish Enterprise's framework for action in life sciences","authors":"A. Rosiello","doi":"10.1504/IJBT.2008.021312","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1504/IJBT.2008.021312","url":null,"abstract":"This paper describes Scottish Enterprise (SE) 'Framework for Action' in life sciences and examines its effectiveness through the lenses of cluster theory and selected concepts from the literature on market and systemic failure. The focus is on the framework's capability to improve the competitive performances of biotechnology firms and strengthen networks. The empirical study gathers the views of the managers and technical directors of 18 Scottish biotechnology companies and provides insights as regards firms' locational choices, collaborative and commercial strategy and the materialisation of a local socio-institutional infrastructure. Easy access to finance, infrastructure, Intellectual Property (IP) and skilled people remain crucial for the achievement of strategic goals. Simultaneously, local and distant networks are beginning to emerge and to have a positive impact on firms' capability to expand research and, to a lesser extent, reach global markets. Scottish companies seem to benefit from mechanisms that reduce cognitive distance locally and the impact of geographical distance from foreign partners.","PeriodicalId":91506,"journal":{"name":"International journal of biotechnology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2008-11-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1504/IJBT.2008.021312","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"66713724","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2008-11-20DOI: 10.1504/IJBT.2008.021308
James Mittra
The life sciences are having a significant impact on the organisation and management of R&D in large pharmaceutical firms, as well as restructuring the markets for new therapeutic products. However, there is continuing scepticism about large firms' ability or inclination to build in-house capacity for biologics and extract value from the life sciences. This paper explores the effect of life science innovation on early and late-stage R&D, and considers the implications for strategic management and the transition of compounds through the middle stages of the R&D pathway. The analysis, which includes two company case studies, reveals that new life science technologies have had a marginal impact on late-stage R&D, but companies are exploring new organisational or translational models to better exploit the science and reduce the phase 2 attrition rates. Findings suggest that firms have the capability to adapt to a new innovation trajectory, but external pressures on strategic and organisational management will continue to determine the level and rate of success.
{"title":"Impact of the life sciences on organisation and management of R&D in large pharmaceutical firms","authors":"James Mittra","doi":"10.1504/IJBT.2008.021308","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1504/IJBT.2008.021308","url":null,"abstract":"The life sciences are having a significant impact on the organisation and management of R&D in large pharmaceutical firms, as well as restructuring the markets for new therapeutic products. However, there is continuing scepticism about large firms' ability or inclination to build in-house capacity for biologics and extract value from the life sciences. This paper explores the effect of life science innovation on early and late-stage R&D, and considers the implications for strategic management and the transition of compounds through the middle stages of the R&D pathway. The analysis, which includes two company case studies, reveals that new life science technologies have had a marginal impact on late-stage R&D, but companies are exploring new organisational or translational models to better exploit the science and reduce the phase 2 attrition rates. Findings suggest that firms have the capability to adapt to a new innovation trajectory, but external pressures on strategic and organisational management will continue to determine the level and rate of success.","PeriodicalId":91506,"journal":{"name":"International journal of biotechnology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2008-11-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1504/IJBT.2008.021308","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"66713598","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2008-11-20DOI: 10.1504/IJBT.2008.021310
D. Bower, A. Murad, Julian C. Sulej, J. Tait
Stem cell research holds promise for applications in regenerative medicine. However many questions remain. For example, will it be possible to patent therapeutic products in this area? Will the necessary investment be forthcoming? In addition there are still many technical problems to be solved. Technical solutions may involve the use of human embryos and this has created barriers to the use of the technology in a number of countries. There is already a need for the progressive development of appropriate legal and regulatory frameworks to allow both the scientific and clinical research to move forward. Some countries are actively encouraging the developments, for example, the UK. In the USA, although the present government is opposed, State and charitable funding is flowing into this area. In this paper we briefly review the issues surrounding stem cell developments and discuss the possible implications of the trends in media coverage.
{"title":"Blazing the trail from stem cell research to regenerative medicine","authors":"D. Bower, A. Murad, Julian C. Sulej, J. Tait","doi":"10.1504/IJBT.2008.021310","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1504/IJBT.2008.021310","url":null,"abstract":"Stem cell research holds promise for applications in regenerative medicine. However many questions remain. For example, will it be possible to patent therapeutic products in this area? Will the necessary investment be forthcoming? In addition there are still many technical problems to be solved. Technical solutions may involve the use of human embryos and this has created barriers to the use of the technology in a number of countries. There is already a need for the progressive development of appropriate legal and regulatory frameworks to allow both the scientific and clinical research to move forward. Some countries are actively encouraging the developments, for example, the UK. In the USA, although the present government is opposed, State and charitable funding is flowing into this area. In this paper we briefly review the issues surrounding stem cell developments and discuss the possible implications of the trends in media coverage.","PeriodicalId":91506,"journal":{"name":"International journal of biotechnology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2008-11-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1504/IJBT.2008.021310","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"66713661","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2008-11-20DOI: 10.1504/IJBT.2008.021311
P. Cooke
For those who study industry organisation and its contemporary economic geography, biotechnology is intrinsically challenging. Moreover, biotechnology clusters are interesting and important intellectually and for policy deliberation. They pose questions about basic cluster theory because localised networks, though intense, may not be as extensive as global ones in firm practices, especially as these evolve over time. Moreover, innovation is more deeply embedded in the publicly funded science base than for 'Porterian' clusters. Regarding innovation, biotechnology is also less obviously Schumpeterian, there being little market-driven 'creative destruction', and is arguably, with its strong emphasis on both large and small firm 'capabilities' – Penrosian &ndash an emphasis in clustering research and applications that warrants further investigation. Finally, at the specific technology-exploitation phase, market interactions assert themselves over milieu characteristics because scientists know the value of their discoveries and there is accordingly high appropriability associated with such knowledge capabilities. But as Owen-Smith and Powell (2004) have shown 'open science' conventions also apply. This makes such clusters irresistible as locations even for 'big pharma' due to localised knowledge spillover opportunities. Thus while biotechnology appears a rather narrow field, its applications are so wide in health, agro-food, energy and environmental sectors that it is becoming a core competence across a substantial segment of the global economy.
{"title":"The evolution of biotechnology in bioregions and their globalisation","authors":"P. Cooke","doi":"10.1504/IJBT.2008.021311","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1504/IJBT.2008.021311","url":null,"abstract":"For those who study industry organisation and its contemporary economic geography, biotechnology is intrinsically challenging. Moreover, biotechnology clusters are interesting and important intellectually and for policy deliberation. They pose questions about basic cluster theory because localised networks, though intense, may not be as extensive as global ones in firm practices, especially as these evolve over time. Moreover, innovation is more deeply embedded in the publicly funded science base than for 'Porterian' clusters. Regarding innovation, biotechnology is also less obviously Schumpeterian, there being little market-driven 'creative destruction', and is arguably, with its strong emphasis on both large and small firm 'capabilities' – Penrosian &ndash an emphasis in clustering research and applications that warrants further investigation. Finally, at the specific technology-exploitation phase, market interactions assert themselves over milieu characteristics because scientists know the value of their discoveries and there is accordingly high appropriability associated with such knowledge capabilities. But as Owen-Smith and Powell (2004) have shown 'open science' conventions also apply. This makes such clusters irresistible as locations even for 'big pharma' due to localised knowledge spillover opportunities. Thus while biotechnology appears a rather narrow field, its applications are so wide in health, agro-food, energy and environmental sectors that it is becoming a core competence across a substantial segment of the global economy.","PeriodicalId":91506,"journal":{"name":"International journal of biotechnology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2008-11-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1504/IJBT.2008.021311","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"66713710","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2008-07-17DOI: 10.1504/IJBT.2008.019559
Icíar Dominguez Lacasa
This paper analyses the scientific and technological gap of the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary and Slovenia in biotechnology and identifies the policy strengths and policy gaps in their biotechnology upgrading processes in the period of 2002?2005. The presented indicators reveal the 'technology follower' status of these countries in the biotechnology field. In what concerns their policy-making systems and (biotechnology) policy strategies, these countries are quite ahead in the process of aligning their governance structures and policy strategies with Western European policy standards. They have identified biotechnology as a priority area and, moreover, they have developed comprehensive policy profiles from an innovation system perspective. However, according to the information available on the policy measures launched in the period of 2002?2005, we can identify policy gaps in four areas: the implementation of biotechnology-specific programmes, fostering a university-industry collaboration, the development of human resources and the promotion of international networking. The extent of these gaps varies from country to country.
{"title":"Bridging the biotechnology gap: policy experiences from the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary and Slovenia","authors":"Icíar Dominguez Lacasa","doi":"10.1504/IJBT.2008.019559","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1504/IJBT.2008.019559","url":null,"abstract":"This paper analyses the scientific and technological gap of the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary and Slovenia in biotechnology and identifies the policy strengths and policy gaps in their biotechnology upgrading processes in the period of 2002?2005. The presented indicators reveal the 'technology follower' status of these countries in the biotechnology field. In what concerns their policy-making systems and (biotechnology) policy strategies, these countries are quite ahead in the process of aligning their governance structures and policy strategies with Western European policy standards. They have identified biotechnology as a priority area and, moreover, they have developed comprehensive policy profiles from an innovation system perspective. However, according to the information available on the policy measures launched in the period of 2002?2005, we can identify policy gaps in four areas: the implementation of biotechnology-specific programmes, fostering a university-industry collaboration, the development of human resources and the promotion of international networking. The extent of these gaps varies from country to country.","PeriodicalId":91506,"journal":{"name":"International journal of biotechnology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2008-07-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1504/IJBT.2008.019559","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"66713540","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2008-07-17DOI: 10.1504/IJBT.2008.019557
C. Enzing, T. Reiss
The present study investigates what policy mixes are the most effective in fostering biotechnology innovations. An input-output approach has been used with a mix of biotechnology policy instruments at the input side and biotechnology performance in science and commercialisation at the output side. Policy mixes that include both generic and biotech-specific policy instruments which support both the science base and commercialisation activities correlate with higher performance levels. Countries that ascribe limited importance to the creation of generic and biotech-specific instruments for the stimulation of biotechnology also perform more weakly. Only generic research stimulating instruments in place is less effective; biotech-specific instruments seem to be more beneficial. All highly performing countries in commercialisation had both generic and biotech-specific instruments in place. The overall conclusion is that a well-balanced mix of generic and biotech-specific measures seems to be superior.
{"title":"The effectiveness of biotechnology policies in Europe","authors":"C. Enzing, T. Reiss","doi":"10.1504/IJBT.2008.019557","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1504/IJBT.2008.019557","url":null,"abstract":"The present study investigates what policy mixes are the most effective in fostering biotechnology innovations. An input-output approach has been used with a mix of biotechnology policy instruments at the input side and biotechnology performance in science and commercialisation at the output side. Policy mixes that include both generic and biotech-specific policy instruments which support both the science base and commercialisation activities correlate with higher performance levels. Countries that ascribe limited importance to the creation of generic and biotech-specific instruments for the stimulation of biotechnology also perform more weakly. Only generic research stimulating instruments in place is less effective; biotech-specific instruments seem to be more beneficial. All highly performing countries in commercialisation had both generic and biotech-specific instruments in place. The overall conclusion is that a well-balanced mix of generic and biotech-specific measures seems to be superior.","PeriodicalId":91506,"journal":{"name":"International journal of biotechnology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2008-07-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1504/IJBT.2008.019557","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"66713488","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2008-07-17DOI: 10.1504/IJBT.2008.019555
C. Enzing, A. V. D. Giessen, S. V. D. Molen, R. Lindner, J. Senker
This article analyses the dynamics in national biotechnology policy-making in the 15 old EU member states and three associated European countries (Iceland, Norway and Switzerland) in the period from 1994?2006. It uses two data sets on national biotechnology policy instruments; the first covers the period from 1994?1998 and the second, the period from 2002?2005. The article analyses the changes in the first and second-generation policies and policy instruments that support biotechnology from a national systems perspective and assesses the changes in terms of market and systems failures. Analysis shows that first-generation policies (supporting basic and applied research) have kept their top position. Strong dynamics were found in second-generation policies encouraging technology transfer and commercialisation. A major trend in 2002?2005 was the increased regional government participation in biotechnology policy-making.
{"title":"Dynamics in biotechnology policy-making in Europe in the period 1994?2006","authors":"C. Enzing, A. V. D. Giessen, S. V. D. Molen, R. Lindner, J. Senker","doi":"10.1504/IJBT.2008.019555","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1504/IJBT.2008.019555","url":null,"abstract":"This article analyses the dynamics in national biotechnology policy-making in the 15 old EU member states and three associated European countries (Iceland, Norway and Switzerland) in the period from 1994?2006. It uses two data sets on national biotechnology policy instruments; the first covers the period from 1994?1998 and the second, the period from 2002?2005. The article analyses the changes in the first and second-generation policies and policy instruments that support biotechnology from a national systems perspective and assesses the changes in terms of market and systems failures. Analysis shows that first-generation policies (supporting basic and applied research) have kept their top position. Strong dynamics were found in second-generation policies encouraging technology transfer and commercialisation. A major trend in 2002?2005 was the increased regional government participation in biotechnology policy-making.","PeriodicalId":91506,"journal":{"name":"International journal of biotechnology","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2008-07-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1504/IJBT.2008.019555","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"66713463","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
京公网安备 11010802042870号
京ICP备2023020795号-1
扫码关注我们
求助内容：
应助结果提醒方式：