Cleaner Materials最新文献_第3页

Single fiber tensile strength of seagrasses and the development and characterization of Zostera marina-based medium density boards

Cleaner Materials

Pub Date : 2024-12-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.clema.2024.100283

Aldi Kuqo , Aldo Joao Cárdenas-Oscanoa , Carsten Mai

This study investigates the potential of the leaves of the seagrass Zostera marina (ZM) as an alternative raw material for the production medium-density boards. In the first part, the tensile strength properties of various types of seagrasses were investigated. Posidonia oceanica fibers (POF) exhibited a mean tensile strength of up to 123 MPa, while its leaves (POL) reached up to 27 MPa. The ZM leaves also showed a similar tensile strength to Posidonia oceanica leaves, 22.9 MPa. In the second part, ZM leaves and wood fibers (WF) are further processed to produce medium density boards with densities ranging from 500 to 700 kg m⁻³. The boards were evaluated for fire resistance, thermal conductivity, mechanical strength, and water resistance-related properties. ZM-boards demonstrated high fire resistance and lower thermal conductivity compared to boards based on wood fiber (WF), i.e. medium density fiberboards (MDF), of similar density. However, due to the low tensile strength and unique morphology of the seagrass leaves, ZM-boards display a lower flexural strength (up to 10.9 MPa) and lower resistance to water absorption compared to boards produced from wood fibers (WF). Boards made by Zostera marina can be a promising alternative to commercial MDF panels especially for interior applications prioritizing fire protection and thermal insulation but they are mainly suited for non-structural uses. Further examination of its acoustic properties would assess its potential applications as sound-absorbing architectural panels.

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引用次数: 0

Experimental study of asphalt mixtures with recycled resources: Influence of electric arc furnace slag aggregate roughness and bitumen film thickness on fatigue performance

Cleaner Materials

Pub Date : 2024-12-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.clema.2024.100282

Dario Benavides, Teresa López-Montero, Marilda Barra Bizinotto, Diego Aponte

Electric arc furnace slag (EAFS) is a viable alternative in asphalt mixtures due to its favourable mechanical properties. This study examines the impact of EAFS content and bitumen film thickness (TF) on the fatigue performance of asphalt mixtures. Mixtures with varying levels of EAFS replacement were designed, and their mechanical properties were evaluated through indirect tensile strength and stiffness tests, followed by fatigue tests using the four-point bending method and EBADE (Strain Sweep Test). The results indicated that mixtures with EAFS exhibited increased stiffness, but fatigue performance decreased at high strain levels. At low strain levels, EAFS mixtures performed similarly or better than the control. HMA_GL had the highest TF (13.97 μm), followed by HMA_GS (13.60 μm), HMA_SL (12.66 μm), and HMA_SS (11.77 μm), showing that as the EAFS content increases, the TF decreases. This finding was verified through Digital Image Analysis. This decrease in TF is due to the high porosity and roughness of the EAFS, which in turn reduces the effective bitumen (P_be) in the mixture. HMA_SL*, with a TF equal to the control, demonstrated a 22 % improvement in fatigue performance compared to HMA_SL. In the EBADE tests, HMA_GL achieved 44.69 MJ/m³ of dissipated energy, HMA_GS 31.55 MJ/m³, HMA_SL 34.45 MJ/m³, and HMA_SS 35.54 MJ/m³. The improved HMA_SL* recorded 42.15 MJ/m³, nearly matching the control. EBADE results confirmed that higher EAFS content increased initial stiffness, but the complex modulus (|E*|) decreased more rapidly as deformation increased. These results are consistent with the stiffness tests. These findings suggest that EAFS can successfully replace natural aggregates in asphalt mixtures, with a moderate increase in bitumen content recommended to improve fatigue performance.

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引用次数: 0

Agro-industrial waste utilization in air-cured alkali-activated pavement composites: Properties, micro-structural insights and life cycle impacts

Cleaner Materials

Pub Date : 2024-12-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.clema.2024.100281

Shriram Marathe , Akhila Sheshadri , Łukasz Sadowski

This study investigates the development and performance of agro-industrial waste-based air-cured alkali-activated concrete composites (AC) for sustainable high-strength rigid pavement applications. The calculated amounts of liquid sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide flakes were used with an adequate quantity of water to prepare the alkali-activator solution. Agro-Industrial by-products, including ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), construction and demolition (C&D) waste, and sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA), were utilized to develop AC mixes and the mechanical properties, micro-structural behaviour, and life cycle impacts were studied. Optimized AC mixes containing 50% recycled aggregates (RCA) (with 50% natural coarse aggregates) and 15% SBA (with 85% GGBS) demonstrated superior compressive, splitting-tensile, and flexural strength, while significantly reducing embodied energy and carbon emissions. Microstructural analysis through XRD, SEM, EDAX, and TGA confirmed the formation of stable alumino-silicate hydrate phases, contributing to enhanced mechanical strength performances. The life cycle analysis results indicated considerable environmental benefits compared to traditional Portland Cement based pavement concrete counterparts. This research presents a sustainable solution for pavement infrastructure, aligning with circular economy principles by promoting the reduction of resource consumption and greenhouse gas emissions.

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引用次数: 0

Development of biopolymer composites using lignin: A sustainable technology for fostering a green transition in the construction sector 利用木质素开发生物聚合物复合材料：促进建筑行业绿色转型的可持续技术

Cleaner Materials

Pub Date : 2024-12-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.clema.2024.100279

Barney H. Miao , Robert J. Headrick , Zhiye Li , Leonardo Spanu , David J. Loftus , Michael D. Lepech

Developing sustainable construction materials is important to help reduce the anthropogenic impacts of the construction industry. Currently, the production of concrete accounts for 8 % of global carbon emissions. Therefore, alternatives to concrete must be developed, to reduce its use in the future. New construction materials will help to facilitate a green transition as envisioned in global climate initiatives. Materials such as lignin are ideal, as they can be implemented with little additional cost to manufacture construction materials. We introduce a novel material, lignin-based biopolymer-bound soil composite (BSC), which is similar to other BSCs using other types of biopolymers. In addition, a design methodology is presented, which allows the manufacture of lignin-based BSCs with tailored characteristics. Two kinds of lignin — hydrolysis lignin and alkali lignin — were investigated, with five mix designs developed for each type of lignin. The lignin-based BSCs were found to have compressive strength ranging from 1.6–8.1 MPa, which allows them to be implemented in non-structural construction applications. Ultimate compressive strength, density, and other parameters were measured, leading to the development of design relationships for lignin-based BSC. The design relationships presented in this study will help introduce lignin-based BSC as a sustainable form of construction.

开发可持续的建筑材料对于帮助减少建筑业的人为影响非常重要。目前，混凝土的生产占全球碳排放量的8%。因此，必须开发混凝土的替代品，以减少其在未来的使用。新型建筑材料将有助于促进全球气候倡议所设想的绿色转型。像木质素这样的材料是理想的，因为它们可以以很少的额外成本来制造建筑材料。我们介绍了一种新型材料，木质素基生物聚合物结合土壤复合材料（BSC），它与其他使用其他类型生物聚合物的BSC相似。此外，提出了一种设计方法，该方法允许制造具有定制特性的木质素基bsc。对水解木质素和碱木质素两种木质素进行了研究，并对每种木质素进行了五种混合设计。基于木质素的BSCs具有1.6-8.1 MPa的抗压强度，这使得它们可以在非结构建筑应用中实现。测量了极限抗压强度、密度和其他参数，从而建立了基于木质素的BSC的设计关系。本研究中提出的设计关系将有助于将木质素为基础的平衡计分卡作为一种可持续的建筑形式。

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引用次数: 0

Sugarcane leaf-derived organosolv lignin as antibacterial and antioxidant agents of natural rubber composites 甘蔗叶衍生有机溶胶木质素作为天然橡胶复合材料的抗菌剂和抗氧化剂

Cleaner Materials

Pub Date : 2024-11-25 DOI: 10.1016/j.clema.2024.100280

Kamonwat Nakason , Parinvadee Chukaew , Yuwanda Thongpanich , Fuangfa Utrarachkij , Sanchai Kuboon , Wasawat Kraithong , Skulrat Pichaiyut , Wanwitoo Wanmolee , Bunyarit Panyapinyopol

To enhance the sustainability and carbon neutrality of natural rubber (NR) derived product, lignin extracted from sugarcane leaf (SCL) was incorporated into NR to prepare environmentally friendly antibacterial (AB) and antioxidant (AO) lignin/NR composites. In this study, SCL lignin was isolated via an organosolv process at different temperatures (140 – 180 °C) and using various organic solvents (ethanol, acetone, and isopropyl alcohol (IPA)). Disk diffusion susceptibility tests, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) demonstrated the AB efficacy of SCL organosolv lignin against Gram-positive bacteria (S. aureus) compared to Gram-negative bacteria (E. coli and S. Typhimurium). The choice of solvent gradually influenced the AB and AO performances of the lignin. Py-GC/MS analysis revealed that SCL organosolv lignin predominantly comprised p-hydroxyphenyl (H’) and guaiacyl (G’) with a minor presence of syringyl (S’) lignin. The incorporation of SCL organosolv lignin into NR showed that NR vulcanizates exhibited enhanced mechanical, AO, and AB properties, depending on the solvent type used in the organosolv process. The NR vulcanizates incorporated with L-Acetone showed dominant aging properties and AB efficacy. On the other hand, the tensile strength and elongation at break of the NR composites were significantly improved by L-IPA and L-Ethanol. These results suggest that SCL organosolv lignin, particularly L-IPA, could be an excellent alternative bio-filler for enhancing the mechanical, AO, and AB properties of NR composites.

为了提高天然橡胶（NR）衍生产品的可持续性和碳中和，将从甘蔗叶（SCL）中提取的木质素与 NR 结合，制备出环境友好型抗菌（AB）和抗氧化（AO）木质素/NR 复合材料。在这项研究中，SCL 木质素是在不同温度（140 - 180 °C）和使用不同有机溶剂（乙醇、丙酮和异丙醇 (IPA)）下通过有机溶胶工艺分离出来的。碟片扩散药敏试验、最低抑菌浓度（MIC）和最低杀菌浓度（MBC）表明，与革兰氏阴性菌（大肠杆菌和鼠伤寒杆菌）相比，SCL 有机溶胶木质素对革兰氏阳性菌（金黄色葡萄球菌）具有 AB 效应。溶剂的选择会逐渐影响木质素的 AB 和 AO 性能。Py-GC/MS 分析表明，SCL 有机溶胶木质素主要由对羟基苯基（H'）和愈创木酰（G'）组成，少量存在丁香基（S'）木质素。将 SCL 有机溶胶木质素掺入 NR 后发现，NR 硫化物的机械性能、AO 性能和 AB 性能均有所提高，具体取决于有机溶胶工艺中使用的溶剂类型。加入 L-Acetone 的 NR 硫化物具有显著的老化性能和 AB 效能。另一方面，L-IPA 和 L-乙醇显著提高了 NR 复合材料的拉伸强度和断裂伸长率。这些结果表明，SCL 有机溶胶木质素，尤其是 L-IPA，可以作为一种极佳的替代生物填料，用于增强 NR 复合材料的机械、AO 和 AB 性能。

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引用次数: 0

Recirculation of construction and demolition Waste: A case study of Danish producers and demolishers 建筑和拆除废物的再循环：丹麦生产商和拆除商案例研究

Cleaner Materials

Pub Date : 2024-11-14 DOI: 10.1016/j.clema.2024.100276

Julia Köhler, Fie Fredshavn Nielsen, Jakob Verstermark, Christian Thuesen

As resource scarcity increases, the construction industry recognizes the potential of Reverse Logistic Supply Chains (RLSC) for demolition waste. Implementing RLSC, however, lacks maturity and poses challenges due to the complexity of the construction industry. This paper is the first to investigate the critical interface between demolishers and producers. In particular, demolishers are crucial for the potential to valorize reclaimed construction wood as they are the gatekeepers of the materials. We apply an existing framework, conceptualized through a systematic literature review, to the case of a Danish shed producer and their collaboration with demolishers. Our data foundation includes qualitative data from semi-structured interviews with industry stakeholders and quantitative financial data on conventional as well as selective demolition. Through the analysis of material, information, and financial flows of reclaimed wood, this paper identifies inhibitors to these flows and reveals that producers can address the majority. Since responsibilities for reprocessing, transportation, and storage require clarification, making agreements for (1) reprocessing and (2) transportation, potentially facilitated by (3) a digital platform can support the producer in overcoming these inhibitors. Even though we show that selective demolition can be financially attractive for demolishers, our findings call for additional supportive regulation of tender practices. Further, we coin the concept of reversed value proposition as RLSC necessitate a reversed understanding of value creation. Overall, this paper contributes empirical evidence to the existing framework, extends it by adding inhibitors and flows, and suggests an extension with platform thinking to support the implementation of RLSC.

随着资源稀缺性的加剧，建筑行业认识到逆向物流供应链（RLSC）在处理拆除废物方面的潜力。然而，由于建筑行业的复杂性，反向物流供应链的实施还不够成熟，并面临着挑战。本文首次研究了拆除商和生产商之间的关键接口。特别是，拆除者对于再生建筑木材的价值潜力至关重要，因为他们是材料的守门人。我们将通过系统性文献综述概念化的现有框架应用于丹麦棚屋生产商及其与拆除商合作的案例中。我们的数据基础包括与行业利益相关者进行的半结构化访谈所获得的定性数据，以及有关传统拆除和选择性拆除的定量财务数据。通过对再生木材的材料流、信息流和资金流的分析，本文确定了这些流动的阻碍因素，并揭示了生产商可以解决的大多数问题。由于需要明确再加工、运输和储存的责任，因此在（1）再加工和（2）运输方面签订协议，并通过（3）数字平台的潜在促进作用，可以帮助生产商克服这些阻碍因素。尽管我们的研究表明，选择性拆除在经济上对拆除者很有吸引力，但我们的研究结果要求对招标行为进行额外的支持性监管。此外，我们还提出了 "反向价值主张 "的概念，因为有轨电车公司需要反向理解价值创造。总之，本文为现有框架提供了实证证据，通过增加抑制因素和流量对其进行了扩展，并提出了平台思维的扩展建议，以支持有偿租赁合同的实施。

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引用次数: 0

Effects of the surface properties and particle size of hydrated lime on desulfurization 熟石灰的表面特性和粒度对脱硫的影响

Cleaner Materials

Pub Date : 2024-11-12 DOI: 10.1016/j.clema.2024.100278

Karthikeyan Rajan , Duygu Kocaefe , Yasar Kocaefe , Jonathan Bernier , Yoann Robert , Yves Dargis

In the gas treatment center in smelters, hydrogen fluoride (HF) is separated from the outlet gases of electrolysis cells, which are used to produce aluminum from alumina. However, SO₂ largely remains in the effluent gas. Another method has to be developed to separate this gas which is harmful to the environment. In this study, semi-dry desulfurization of a SO₂ containing gas was performed at low SO₂ concentrations using hydrated lime [Ca(OH)₂] as a catalytic desulfurizer under specific humidity conditions. The low reaction temperature of 100 °C and minimal use of the Ca-based desulfurizer under 17 % relative humidity achieved more than 95 % removal of SO₂. The morphological changes and presence of sulfur in different lime samples were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) analysis showed changes in the surface properties of hydrated lime after desulfurization. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis provided the phase and composition identification of the sulfur species on hydrated lime and the CaSO₃/CaSO₄ product ratio. Based on the experimental results, the optimum catalyst surface area with a specific particle size is critical to the effective conversion of Ca(OH)₂ into CaSO₃ and CaSO₄. The practicality of a Ca-based desulfurizer and its ability to convert into the required product may be the key to reducing the overall cost of desulfurization in aluminum industry.

在冶炼厂的气体处理中心，氟化氢 (HF) 被从电解槽的出口气体中分离出来，电解槽用于从氧化铝中生产铝。然而，SO2 大部分仍留在废气中。必须开发另一种方法来分离这种对环境有害的气体。在这项研究中，使用熟石灰[Ca(OH)2]作为催化脱硫剂，在特定的湿度条件下，对低浓度二氧化硫气体进行了半干法脱硫。在相对湿度为 17% 的条件下，100 °C 的低反应温度和 Ca 基脱硫剂的最小使用量实现了 95% 以上的二氧化硫去除率。扫描电子显微镜和能量色散 X 射线光谱分析了不同石灰样品的形态变化和硫的存在。布鲁纳-艾美特-泰勒（BET）分析表明，脱硫后熟石灰的表面性质发生了变化。X 射线光电子能谱（XPS）分析提供了熟石灰上硫物种的相位和成分鉴定，以及 CaSO3/CaSO4 产物比。根据实验结果，具有特定粒度的最佳催化剂表面积对 Ca(OH)2 有效转化为 CaSO3 和 CaSO4 至关重要。钙基脱硫剂的实用性及其转化为所需产品的能力可能是降低铝工业脱硫总成本的关键。

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引用次数: 0

Investigation of the influence of crushed sand on carbonation of Mortar: Physical and microstructural analysis 研究碎砂对砂浆碳化的影响：物理和微观结构分析

Cleaner Materials

Pub Date : 2024-11-03 DOI: 10.1016/j.clema.2024.100277

Emmanuel A.M. Elat , Alexandre Pierre , Prosper Pliya , Myriam Duc , Michel Mbessa , Albert Noumowé

The use of crushed sand instead as a substitute for river sand has gained importance in construction practices due to the limited availability of river sand. This study examines the physical and microstructural impacts of crushed sand on mortar carbonation. Using X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Thermo-Gravimetric Analysis (TGA), and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). We highlight the influence of substituting river sand with crushed sand after exposure to 3 % CO₂ in an accelerated carbonation chamber for 28 days. The mass fractions of Ca(OH)₂ and CaCO₃ were determined by thermogravimetric analysis, and a decrease in porosity was observed with an increasing proportion of crushed sand in the mixture. Partial or total substitution of river sand with crushed sand, for environmental purposes, shows improved resistance against CO₂ attack. Our study reveals the beneficial effects of crushed sand in reducing porosity and carbonation compared to river sand.

由于河砂的供应有限，使用碎砂替代河砂在建筑实践中变得越来越重要。本研究探讨了碎砂对砂浆碳化的物理和微观结构影响。研究使用了 X 射线衍射 (XRD)、热重分析 (TGA) 和扫描电子显微镜 (SEM)。我们强调了在加速碳化室中暴露于 3% CO2 28 天后用碎砂代替河砂的影响。通过热重分析测定了 Ca(OH)2 和 CaCO3 的质量分数，并观察到孔隙率随着混合物中碎砂比例的增加而降低。为环保目的，用碎砂部分或全部替代河砂，可提高抗二氧化碳侵蚀的能力。与河沙相比，我们的研究揭示了碎沙在降低孔隙率和碳化方面的有益效果。

引用次数: 0

Biodegradable natural polymers and fibers for 3D printing: A holistic perspective on processing, characterization, and advanced applications 用于 3D 打印的可生物降解天然聚合物和纤维：加工、表征和先进应用的整体视角

Cleaner Materials

Pub Date : 2024-10-30 DOI: 10.1016/j.clema.2024.100275

M.A. Shadab Siddiqui , M.S. Rabbi , Radif Uddin Ahmed , Md. Maruf Billah

The biodegradable natural polymers and fibers could be suggested to revolutionize 3D printing as sustainable, biocompatible, and unique properties in the print matrix for different applications. This review article covers the natural polymers in the form of cellulose, alginate, starch, collagen, silk, chitosan, and gelatin as printing constituents. Furthermore, it includes various natural fibers such as hemp, jute, flax, and bamboo with unique characteristics and advantages in 3D printing. Reinforcements derived from nature have provided better tensile strength, moduli, and flexural properties when infused into polymer matrices, such as PLA, ABS, and PP. Extrusion-based methods, comprising Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)/Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF), are the most applied techniques of 3D printing for natural-polymer and fiber composites with a principal application in the medical and industrial domains. The future of natural polymers and fibers in 3D printing is becoming very promising despite uniform printability, interfacial adhesion, and mechanical property-related issues. Research in optimizing material composition, processing parameters, and post-processing techniques goes apace to attain the required properties, functionality, and performance. This review provides an outline to researchers and engineers working on 3D printing on the immense potential associated with biodegradable natural polymers and fibers for designing innovative, sustainable, and high-performance products in various applications that contribute to a greener and more sustainable future.

可生物降解的天然聚合物和纤维具有可持续发展、生物相容性和打印基质的独特性能，可用于不同的应用领域，因此可为三维打印带来革命性的变化。这篇综述文章介绍了纤维素、海藻酸盐、淀粉、胶原蛋白、丝绸、壳聚糖和明胶等天然聚合物作为打印成分的形式。此外，文章还介绍了大麻、黄麻、亚麻和竹子等各种天然纤维在 3D 打印中的独特特性和优势。源自大自然的增强材料注入聚乳酸、ABS 和 PP 等聚合物基质后，可提供更好的拉伸强度、模量和挠曲性能。以挤压为基础的方法，包括熔融沉积建模（FDM）/熔融长丝制造（FFF），是天然聚合物和纤维复合材料三维打印中应用最广泛的技术，主要应用于医疗和工业领域。尽管存在均匀打印性、界面粘附性和机械性能相关问题，但天然聚合物和纤维在三维打印中的应用前景非常广阔。为达到所需的特性、功能和性能，优化材料成分、加工参数和后处理技术的研究正在快速进行。本综述向从事三维打印的研究人员和工程师概述了与可生物降解天然聚合物和纤维相关的巨大潜力，以便在各种应用中设计创新、可持续和高性能的产品，从而为更环保、更可持续的未来做出贡献。

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引用次数: 0

Experimental study of phase change material (PCM) biochar composite for net-zero built environment applications 相变材料 (PCM) 生物炭复合材料在净零建筑环境应用中的实验研究

Cleaner Materials

Pub Date : 2024-10-23 DOI: 10.1016/j.clema.2024.100274

Mohamed Katish , Stephen Allen , Adam Squires , Veronica Ferrandiz-Mas

This study presents a novel and sustainable method for integrating octadecane phase change material (PCM) into traditional building materials like mortar and gypsum using vacuum-impregnated biochar. Optimising the impregnation conditions resulted in a PCM-biochar composite with 62.21 % PCM loading and a latent heat energy of approximately 116.7 J.g⁻¹, as measured by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) confirmed the composite’s stability at high temperatures, while accelerated DSC validated its phase change capability and stability over 300 cycles. Characterisation via Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Small-Angle X-ray Scattering (SAXS), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), and Solid-State Proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (1H NMR) verifies PCM retention within biochar pores and reveals interactions between PCM and biochar. Additionally, the non-pozzolanic nature of biochar is confirmed. Workability tests show reduced consistency with increased PCM-biochar content in mortar. At 40 % sand replacement rate with PCM-biochar, the compressive strength initially decreases by 45.50 % after 28 days, but it improves to 43 MPa after 120 days. Gypsum samples retain adequate strength for retrofitting applications (2 MPa), demonstrating the potential of PCM-biochar composites to enhance thermal energy storage in building materials, thereby supporting Net-zero building objectives.

本研究提出了一种新颖且可持续的方法，利用真空浸渍生物炭将十八烷相变材料（PCM）融入砂浆和石膏等传统建筑材料中。通过优化浸渍条件，PCM-生物炭复合材料的 PCM 含量达到 62.21%，差示扫描量热仪（DSC）测得的潜热能量约为 116.7 J.g-1。热重分析 (TGA) 证实了该复合材料在高温下的稳定性，而加速 DSC 则验证了其相变能力和超过 300 次循环的稳定性。通过扫描电子显微镜 (SEM)、小角 X 射线散射 (SAXS)、X 射线衍射 (XRD) 和固态质子核磁共振 (1H NMR) 进行的表征验证了 PCM 在生物炭孔隙中的保留情况，并揭示了 PCM 与生物炭之间的相互作用。此外，生物炭的非胶凝性也得到了证实。工作性测试表明，随着砂浆中 PCM 生物炭含量的增加，稠度也会降低。当 PCM 生物炭的砂替代率为 40%时，28 天后的抗压强度最初会降低 45.50%，但 120 天后会提高到 43 兆帕。石膏样品在改造应用中保持了足够的强度（2 兆帕），这表明 PCM 生物炭复合材料具有增强建筑材料热能储存的潜力，从而支持净零建筑目标的实现。

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引用次数: 0