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Assessment of Low-Carbon Flexibility in Self-Organized Virtual Power Plants Using Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning 利用多代理强化学习评估自组织虚拟发电厂的低碳灵活性
IF 3 4区 工程技术 Q3 ENERGY & FUELS Pub Date : 2024-07-26 DOI: 10.3390/en17153688
Gengsheng He, Yu Huang, Guori Huang, Xi Liu, Pei Li, Yan Zhang
Virtual power plants (VPPs) aggregate a large number of distributed energy resources (DERs) through IoT technology to provide flexibility to the grid. It is an effective means to promote the utilization of renewable energy, and enable carbon neutrality for future power systems. This paper addresses the evaluation issue of DERs‘ low-carbon benefits, proposes a flexibility assessment model for self-organized VPP to quantify the low-carbon value of DERs’ response behavior in different time periods. Firstly, we introduce the definition of zero-carbon index based on the curve simultaneous rate of renewable energy and load demand. Then, we establish a multi-level self-organized aggregation method for virtual power plants, define the basic rules of DER, and characterize its self-organized aggregation as a Markov game process. Moreover, we use QMIX to achieve a bottom-up, hierarchical construction of VPP from simple to complex. Experimental results show that when users track the zero-carbon curve, they can achieve zero carbon emissions without reducing the overall load, significantly enhancing the grid’s regulation capabilities and the consumption of renewable energy. Additionally, self-organized algorithms can optimize the combinations of DERs to improve the coordination efficiency of VPPs in complex environments.
虚拟发电厂(VPP)通过物联网技术汇聚大量分布式能源资源(DER),为电网提供灵活性。它是促进可再生能源利用、实现未来电力系统碳中和的有效手段。本文针对 DERs 的低碳效益评估问题,提出了自组织 VPP 的灵活性评估模型,以量化 DERs 在不同时段响应行为的低碳价值。首先,介绍了基于可再生能源与负荷需求曲线同步率的零碳指数定义。然后,我们建立了虚拟电厂的多级自组织聚合方法,定义了 DER 的基本规则,并将其自组织聚合表征为马尔可夫博弈过程。此外,我们还利用 QMIX 实现了虚拟电厂自下而上、由简到繁的分层构建。实验结果表明,当用户追踪零碳曲线时,可以在不降低总体负荷的情况下实现零碳排放,从而显著增强电网的调节能力和可再生能源的消耗。此外,自组织算法还能优化 DER 的组合,提高 VPP 在复杂环境中的协调效率。
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引用次数: 0
A Medium- and Long-Term Residential Load Forecasting Method Based on Discrete Cosine Transform-FEDformer 基于离散余弦变换-FEDformer 的中长期居民负荷预测方法
IF 3 4区 工程技术 Q3 ENERGY & FUELS Pub Date : 2024-07-25 DOI: 10.3390/en17153676
Deng-ao Li, Qi Liu, Ding Feng, Zhichao Chen
Accurate and reliable medium- and long-term load forecasting is crucial for the rational planning and operation of power systems. However, existing methods often struggle to accurately extract and capture long-term dependencies in load data, leading to poor predictive accuracy. Therefore, this paper proposes a medium- and long-term residential load forecasting method based on FEDformer, aiming to capture long-term temporal dependencies of load data in the frequency domain while considering factors such as electricity prices and temperature, ultimately improving the accuracy of medium- and long-term load forecasting. The proposed model employs Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) for frequency domain transformation of time-series data to address the Gibbs phenomenon caused by the use of Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) in FEDformer. Additionally, causal convolution and attention mechanisms are applied in the frequency domain to enhance the model’s capability to capture long-term dependencies. The model is evaluated using real-world load data from power systems, and experimental results demonstrate that the proposed model effectively learns the temporal and nonlinear characteristics of load data. Compared to other baseline models, DCTformer improves prediction accuracy by 37.5% in terms of MSE, 26.9% in terms of MAE, and 26.24% in terms of RMSE.
准确可靠的中长期负荷预测对电力系统的合理规划和运行至关重要。然而,现有的方法往往难以准确提取和捕捉负荷数据中的长期依赖关系,导致预测精度不高。因此,本文提出了一种基于 FEDformer 的中长期居民负荷预测方法,旨在捕捉频率域中负荷数据的长期时间依赖性,同时考虑电价和温度等因素,最终提高中长期负荷预测的准确性。拟议模型采用离散余弦变换 (DCT) 对时间序列数据进行频域变换,以解决 FEDformer 中使用离散傅里叶变换 (DFT) 所产生的吉布斯现象。此外,还在频域中应用了因果卷积和注意力机制,以增强模型捕捉长期依赖关系的能力。实验结果表明,所提出的模型能有效学习负载数据的时间和非线性特征。与其他基线模型相比,DCTformer 在 MSE 方面提高了 37.5%,在 MAE 方面提高了 26.9%,在 RMSE 方面提高了 26.24%。
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引用次数: 0
Long Short-Term Memory Autoencoder and Extreme Gradient Boosting-Based Factory Energy Management Framework for Power Consumption Forecasting 基于长短期记忆自动编码器和极端梯度提升技术的工厂能源管理框架--用于能耗预测
IF 3 4区 工程技术 Q3 ENERGY & FUELS Pub Date : 2024-07-25 DOI: 10.3390/en17153666
Yeeun Moon, Younjeong Lee, Yejin Hwang, J. Jeong
Electricity consumption prediction is crucial for the operation, strategic planning, and maintenance of power grid infrastructure. The effective management of power systems depends on accurately predicting electricity usage patterns and intensity. This study aims to enhance the operational efficiency of power systems and minimize environmental impact by predicting mid to long-term electricity consumption in industrial facilities, particularly in forging processes, and detecting anomalies in energy consumption. We propose an ensemble model combining Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) and a Long Short-Term Memory Autoencoder (LSTM-AE) to accurately forecast power consumption. This approach leverages the strengths of both models to improve prediction accuracy and responsiveness. The dataset includes power consumption data from forging processes in manufacturing plants, as well as system load and System Marginal Price data. During data preprocessing, Expectation Maximization Principal Component Analysis was applied to address missing values and select significant features, optimizing the model. The proposed method achieved a Mean Absolute Error of 0.020, a Mean Squared Error of 0.021, a Coefficient of Determination of 0.99, and a Symmetric Mean Absolute Percentage Error of 4.24, highlighting its superior predictive performance and low relative error. These findings underscore the model’s reliability and accuracy for integration into Energy Management Systems for real-time data processing and mid to long-term energy planning, facilitating sustainable energy use and informed decision making in industrial settings.
用电量预测对于电网基础设施的运行、战略规划和维护至关重要。电力系统的有效管理取决于对电力使用模式和强度的准确预测。本研究旨在通过预测工业设施(尤其是锻造过程)的中长期用电量,并检测能源消耗的异常情况,从而提高电力系统的运行效率,并最大限度地减少对环境的影响。我们提出了一种结合极端梯度提升(XGBoost)和长短期记忆自动编码器(LSTM-AE)的集合模型,以准确预测耗电量。这种方法充分利用了两种模型的优势,从而提高了预测精度和响应速度。数据集包括来自制造工厂锻造过程的功耗数据,以及系统负载和系统边际价格数据。在数据预处理过程中,采用了期望最大化主成分分析法来处理缺失值并选择重要特征,从而优化了模型。所提出的方法的平均绝对误差为 0.020,平均平方误差为 0.021,决定系数为 0.99,对称平均绝对百分比误差为 4.24,突出了其卓越的预测性能和较低的相对误差。这些发现强调了该模型的可靠性和准确性,可以集成到能源管理系统中进行实时数据处理和中长期能源规划,促进工业环境中的可持续能源利用和知情决策。
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引用次数: 0
Study on Compatibility Evaluation of Multilayer Co-Production to Enhance Recovery of Water Flooding in Oil Reservoir 提高油藏水淹采收率的多层共生兼容性评估研究
IF 3 4区 工程技术 Q3 ENERGY & FUELS Pub Date : 2024-07-25 DOI: 10.3390/en17153667
Leng Tian, X. Chai, Lei Zhang, Wenbo Zhang, Yuan Zhu, Jiaxin Wang, Jianguo Wang
Increasing oil production is crucial for multilayer co-production. When there are significant differences in the permeability of each layer, an interlayer contradiction arises that can impact the recovery efficiency. After a number of tests and the establishment of a mathematical model, the effects of permeability contrast on oil production for water flooding were revealed. In the meantime, the developed mathematical model was solved using the Buckley–Lever seepage equation. Ultimately, the accuracy of the established model was confirmed by comparing the simulated outcomes of the mathematical model with the experimental results. The findings indicate that when permeability contrast increases, the production ratio of the high-permeability layer will improve. This is primarily due to the low-permeability layer’s production contribution rate decreasing. The accuracy of the established model is ensured by an error of less than 5% between the results of the experiment and the simulation. When the permeability contrast is less than three, the low-permeability layer can be effectively used for three-layer commingled production. However, when the permeability contrast exceeds six, the production coefficient of the low-permeability layer will be less than 5%, which has a significant impact on the layer’s development.
提高石油产量对多层共采至关重要。当各层渗透率存在显著差异时,就会产生层间矛盾,从而影响采油效率。经过多次试验和建立数学模型,揭示了渗透率对比对水淹采油的影响。同时,利用 Buckley-Lever 渗流方程对建立的数学模型进行了求解。最终,通过比较数学模型的模拟结果和实验结果,证实了所建立模型的准确性。研究结果表明,当渗透率对比度增大时,高渗透率层的生产率会提高。这主要是由于低渗透层的产油贡献率下降。实验结果与模拟结果之间的误差小于 5%,确保了所建立模型的准确性。当渗透率对比小于 3 时,低渗透层可有效用于三层混合生产。然而,当渗透率对比度超过 6 时,低渗透层的生产系数将小于 5%,这对该层的开发有很大影响。
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引用次数: 0
A Hybrid Commutation Technique for Reducing Zero-Crossing Distortion in a Sliding Mode Controller for Single-Phase Grid-Tied Full-Bridge Inverters 减少单相并网全桥式逆变器滑动模式控制器零交叉失真的混合换向技术
IF 3 4区 工程技术 Q3 ENERGY & FUELS Pub Date : 2024-07-25 DOI: 10.3390/en17153671
M. A. Bolaños-Navarrete, J. Bastidas‐Rodríguez, Gustavo Osorio
This paper presents a single-phase Full-Bridge (FB) inverter with a hybrid commutation technique designed to reduce the harmonic distortion caused by the loss of the controller capability around the zero-crossing point in the unipolar commutation region. The hybrid modulation changes from unipolar to bipolar commutation under the loss of the reference control, improving the robustness and efficiency of the method. The commutation technique improves the switching performance and reduces the switching losses. Simulation models are developed in MATLAB/Simulink R2023b to evaluate their performance under different operating conditions. The results show that the proposed commutation technique can achieve high efficiency, low total harmonic distortion (THD), and fast dynamic response. The experimental implementation of sliding mode control (SMC) implemented in an STM32 microcontroller confirms that the hybrid commutation technique can reduce the THD by 0.96 percentage points for local (off-grid) loads and up to 2.45 in an industrial grid-tie network, compared with unipolar commutation. These findings highlight the potential of the proposed modulation technique for applications like solar panels and offer crucial insights for ongoing research and development in this field.
本文介绍了一种采用混合换向技术的单相全桥(FB)逆变器,该技术旨在降低因单极换向区零交叉点附近控制器能力丧失而导致的谐波失真。在失去参考控制的情况下,混合调制从单极换向变为双极换向,从而提高了该方法的鲁棒性和效率。换向技术提高了开关性能,降低了开关损耗。在 MATLAB/Simulink R2023b 中开发了仿真模型,以评估其在不同工作条件下的性能。结果表明,所提出的换向技术可以实现高效率、低总谐波失真(THD)和快速动态响应。在 STM32 微控制器中实施的滑动模式控制(SMC)实验证实,与单极换向相比,混合换向技术可将本地(离网)负载的总谐波失真(THD)降低 0.96 个百分点,在工业并网网络中最高可降低 2.45 个百分点。这些发现凸显了拟议的调制技术在太阳能电池板等应用中的潜力,并为这一领域的持续研发提供了重要启示。
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引用次数: 0
Research on the Optimization of the Heating Effect of Lithium-Ion Batteries at a Low Temperature Based on an Electromagnetic Induction Heating System 基于电磁感应加热系统的锂离子电池低温加热效果优化研究
IF 3 4区 工程技术 Q3 ENERGY & FUELS Pub Date : 2024-07-25 DOI: 10.3390/en17153678
Borui Wang, Mingyin Yan
Based on an electromagnetic induction heating system that was recently developed in a previous work, an orthogonal test with three elements and nine levels was carried out to improve the heating effect of the system. This was intended to achieve a balance between the heating rate and temperature uniformity, where the electrochemical and thermal behaviors of the heated lithium-ion battery could be characterized by a high-accuracy electrochemical–thermal coupling model. This was validated against constant-current discharge and HPPC test data at room temperature and different low temperatures. Under the optimal parameter combination that was found in the orthogonal test, the battery temperature could rise to 293.15 K from 243.15 K in 494 s, with a maximum temperature rise rate of 0.133 K·s−1. The temperature difference after heating reached 4.21 K, which resulted from the heat conductivity of the battery material due to the skin depth of the battery shell and the material properties inside the battery. Due to the internal resistance, which decreased to no more than a quarter of the low-temperature level, both the usable energy and pulse power were increased more than 2.5 and 3 times, respectively. The enhancement of the energy output ability could provide a greater cruise range and improved dynamics for electric vehicles. The capacity calibration results obtained during the heating cycles indicated that there was only a 3.61% reduction in capacity retention after 120 repetitive heating cycles, which was 0.008 Ah below the normal cycle at 293.15 K, even compared with room-temperature capacity calibration, thus reducing the effect on the battery’s lifetime. Therefore, the electromagnetic induction heating system with a heating strategy could achieve a beneficial compromise between the temperature rise behavior, cycle lifetime, and working ability, indicating considerable potential for the optimization of the heating effect.
基于先前工作中最新开发的电磁感应加热系统,进行了三元素九级正交试验,以改善系统的加热效果。这样做的目的是在加热速率和温度均匀性之间取得平衡,通过高精度的电化学-热耦合模型来表征加热锂离子电池的电化学和热行为。该模型根据室温和不同低温下的恒流放电和 HPPC 测试数据进行了验证。在正交试验中找到的最佳参数组合下,电池温度可在 494 秒内从 243.15 K 升至 293.15 K,最大升温速率为 0.133 K-s-1。加热后的温差达到了 4.21 K,这是由于电池外壳的表皮深度和电池内部的材料特性所导致的电池材料导热性所造成的。由于内阻下降到不超过低温时的四分之一,可用能量和脉冲功率分别提高了 2.5 倍和 3 倍以上。能量输出能力的提高可为电动汽车提供更大的巡航范围和更好的动力性。加热循环期间获得的容量校准结果表明,即使与室温容量校准相比,经过 120 次重复加热循环后,容量保持率仅降低了 3.61%,比 293.15 K 下的正常循环低 0.008 Ah,从而降低了对电池寿命的影响。因此,采用加热策略的电磁感应加热系统可以在温升行为、循环寿命和工作能力之间实现有益的折衷,这表明加热效果的优化具有相当大的潜力。
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引用次数: 0
Adaptability Evaluation of Power Grid Planning Scheme for Novel Power System Considering Multiple Decision Psychology 考虑多重决策心理的新型电力系统电网规划方案适应性评估
IF 3 4区 工程技术 Q3 ENERGY & FUELS Pub Date : 2024-07-25 DOI: 10.3390/en17153672
Yuqing Wang, Chaochen Yan, Zhaozhen Wang, Jiaxing Wang
With a substantial fraction of renewable energy integrated into the electrical grid, the new power system urgently requires grid planning scheme displaying adaptability to different energy types and their volatility. Considering the indeterminacy of renewable energy generation output and the different attitudes of decision-makers towards its risk, this paper proposes an adaptability assessment methodology for power grid planning schemes considering multiple decision psychology. First, an evaluation indicator framework is established based on the adaptive requirements of the grid planning for novel power system, and the weights of indicators are calculated based on an improved AHP-CRITIC combination weighting method. Second, improved cumulative prospect theory (ICPT) is adopted to improve to the calculation method of the distance between the evaluation program and the positive and negative ideal programs in the GRA and TOPSIS, which effectively characterize the different decision-making psychologies, and a combination evaluation model is constructed based on a cooperative game (CG), namely, an adaptability evaluation model of grid planning schemes for novel power systems based on GRA-TOPSIS integrating CG and ICPT. Finally, the proposed model serves to evaluate grid planning schemes of three regions in China’s 14th Five-Year Plan. The evaluation results show that the adaptability of the schemes varies under different decision-making psychologies, and under the risk-aggressive and loss-sensitive decision-making psychologies, grid planning scheme of Region 1 with the greatest accommodation capacity of renewable energy is preferable.
随着大量可再生能源并入电网,新的电力系统迫切需要电网规划方案显示出对不同能源类型及其波动性的适应性。考虑到可再生能源发电输出的不确定性以及决策者对其风险的不同态度,本文提出了一种考虑多种决策心理的电网规划方案适应性评估方法。首先,根据新型电力系统电网规划的适应性要求建立评价指标框架,并基于改进的 AHP-CRITIC 组合权重法计算指标权重。其次,采用改进的累积前景理论(ICPT)改进了 GRA 和 TOPSIS 中评价方案与正负理想方案距离的计算方法,有效地表征了不同的决策心理,构建了基于合作博弈(CG)的组合评价模型,即基于 GRA-TOPSIS 并融合 CG 和 ICPT 的新型电力系统电网规划方案适应性评价模型。最后,所提出的模型用于评价中国 "十四五 "规划中三个地区的电网规划方案。评价结果表明,在不同的决策心理下,方案的适应性不同,在风险激进型和损失敏感型决策心理下,可再生能源容纳能力最强的一区电网规划方案更优;在风险激进型决策心理下,可再生能源容纳能力最强的二区电网规划方案更优;在损失敏感型决策心理下,可再生能源容纳能力最强的三区电网规划方案更优。
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引用次数: 0
A Novel Sustainable Approach for Site Selection of Underground Hydrogen Storage in Poland Using Deep Learning 利用深度学习为波兰地下储氢选址的新型可持续方法
IF 3 4区 工程技术 Q3 ENERGY & FUELS Pub Date : 2024-07-25 DOI: 10.3390/en17153677
Reza Derakhshani, L. Lankof, Amin GhasemiNejad, Alireza Zarasvandi, Mohammad Mahdi Amani Zarin, M. Zaresefat
This research investigates the potential of using bedded salt formations for underground hydrogen storage. We present a novel artificial intelligence framework that employs spatial data analysis and multi-criteria decision-making to pinpoint the most appropriate sites for hydrogen storage in salt caverns. This methodology incorporates a comprehensive platform enhanced by a deep learning algorithm, specifically a convolutional neural network (CNN), to generate suitability maps for rock salt deposits for hydrogen storage. The efficacy of the CNN algorithm was assessed using metrics such as Mean Absolute Error (MAE), Mean Squared Error (MSE), Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), and the Correlation Coefficient (R2), with comparisons made to a real-world dataset. The CNN model showed outstanding performance, with an R2 of 0.96, MSE of 1.97, MAE of 1.003, and RMSE of 1.4. This novel approach leverages advanced deep learning techniques to offer a unique framework for assessing the viability of underground hydrogen storage. It presents a significant advancement in the field, offering valuable insights for a wide range of stakeholders and facilitating the identification of ideal sites for hydrogen storage facilities, thereby supporting informed decision-making and sustainable energy infrastructure development.
这项研究探讨了利用层状盐层进行地下储氢的潜力。我们提出了一个新颖的人工智能框架,利用空间数据分析和多标准决策来确定最适合在盐洞中储氢的地点。该方法结合了一个由深度学习算法(特别是卷积神经网络(CNN))增强的综合平台,以生成用于储氢的岩盐矿床适宜性地图。使用平均绝对误差 (MAE)、平均平方误差 (MSE)、均方根误差 (RMSE) 和相关系数 (R2) 等指标评估了 CNN 算法的功效,并与现实世界的数据集进行了比较。CNN 模型表现出色,R2 为 0.96,MSE 为 1.97,MAE 为 1.003,RMSE 为 1.4。这种新方法利用先进的深度学习技术,为评估地下储氢的可行性提供了一个独特的框架。它在该领域取得了重大进展,为广泛的利益相关者提供了有价值的见解,有助于确定氢气储存设施的理想地点,从而支持知情决策和可持续能源基础设施发展。
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引用次数: 0
Decarbonizing Hard-to-Abate Sectors with Renewable Hydrogen: A Real Case Application to the Ceramics Industry 利用可再生氢气使难减排行业去碳化:陶瓷工业的实际应用案例
IF 3 4区 工程技术 Q3 ENERGY & FUELS Pub Date : 2024-07-25 DOI: 10.3390/en17153661
Jorge Sousa, Inês Azevedo, Cristina Camus, Luís Mendes, Carla Viveiros, Filipe Barata
Hydrogen produced from renewable energy sources is a valuable energy carrier for linking growing renewable electricity generation with the hard-to-abate sectors, such as cement, steel, glass, chemical, and ceramics industries. In this context, this paper presents a new model of hydrogen production based on solar photovoltaics and wind energy with application to a real-world ceramics factory. For this task, a novel multipurpose profit-maximizing model is implemented using GAMS. The developed model explores hydrogen production with multiple value streams that enable technical and economical informed decisions under specific scenarios. Our results show that it is profitable to sell the hydrogen produced to the gas grid rather than using it for self-consumption for low-gas-price scenarios. On the other hand, when the price of gas is significantly high, it is more profitable to use as much hydrogen as possible for self-consumption to supply the factory and reduce the internal use of natural gas. The role of electricity self-consumption has proven to be key for the project’s profitability as, without this revenue stream, the project would not be profitable in any analysed scenario.
利用可再生能源生产的氢气是一种宝贵的能源载体,可将不断增长的可再生能源发电与水泥、钢铁、玻璃、化工和陶瓷等难以消减的行业联系起来。在此背景下,本文提出了一种基于太阳能光伏发电和风能的新型制氢模式,并将其应用于现实世界中的陶瓷工厂。为此,本文使用 GAMS 实现了一个新颖的多用途利润最大化模型。所开发的模型探索了氢气生产的多种价值流,可在特定情况下做出技术和经济方面的明智决策。我们的结果表明,在低气价情况下,将生产的氢气出售给天然气电网而不是用于自用是有利可图的。另一方面,当天然气价格明显偏高时,尽可能多地将氢气用于自用以供应工厂并减少天然气的内部使用则更有利可图。事实证明,自用电的作用是项目盈利的关键,因为如果没有这部分收入,项目在任何分析的情况下都无法盈利。
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引用次数: 0
Selected Reliability Aspects Related to the Power Supply of Security Systems 与安全系统供电有关的若干可靠性问题
IF 3 4区 工程技术 Q3 ENERGY & FUELS Pub Date : 2024-07-25 DOI: 10.3390/en17153665
J. Łukasiak, Jacek Paś, A. Rosiński
The paper analyses the state of the issue related to the reliability of power supply for selected electronic security systems employed in buildings and over vast areas constituting so-called state critical infrastructure. The authors conducted operational tests covering power supply systems, developed power supply system models, executed a functional safety reliability analysis for such technical facilities, and worked out graphs, as well as drew conclusions arising from the conducted computer simulation. The article also contains element (fuse) redundancy tests, which are the fundamental components of each security system power supply device. In addition, the operation process analysis covering power supply devices functioning within a given environment was conducted for selected representative electronic security systems operated in buildings. Analysis results enabled determining basic operation process indices for selected power supply systems, i.e., failure rate λ and recovery rate μ. Then, reliability models for devices powering electronic security systems were developed, and a computer simulation to work out reliability parameters was conducted for the determined operation process indices (λ, μ). Basic reliability indices for electronic security systems responsible for the life, health and property accumulated within the buildings and vast areas in question were determined for power supply models developed this way. Data for reliability computer simulations were developed on the basis of proprietary system tests. The authors also tested selected activation times of redundant components protecting power supplies.
本文分析了在建筑物和构成所谓国家关键基础设施的广阔区域中使用的选定电子安全系统的供电可靠性问题的现状。作者对供电系统进行了运行测试,开发了供电系统模型,对此类技术设施进行了功能安全可靠性分析,绘制了图表,并通过计算机模拟得出了结论。文章还包含元件(熔断器)冗余测试,这是每个安全系统电源设备的基本组成部分。此外,还对选定的具有代表性的楼宇电子安防系统进行了运行过程分析,包括在特定环境下运行的供电设备。分析结果确定了选定供电系统的基本运行过程指数,即故障率 λ 和恢复率 μ。然后,建立了电子安全系统供电设备的可靠性模型,并对确定的运行过程指数(λ、μ)进行了计算机模拟,以计算出可靠性参数。通过这种方法开发的供电模型,确定了电子安全系统的基本可靠性指数,这些系统对建筑物和广阔区域内积累的生命、健康和财产负责。可靠性计算机模拟数据是在专有系统测试的基础上开发的。作者还测试了保护电源的冗余组件的选定启动时间。
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引用次数: 0
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Energies
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