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The rise of data-driven microscopy powered by machine learning 由机器学习驱动的数据驱动显微镜技术的兴起。
IF 1.5 4区 工程技术 Q3 MICROSCOPY Pub Date : 2024-03-06 DOI: 10.1111/jmi.13282
Leonor Morgado, Estibaliz Gómez-de-Mariscal, Hannah S. Heil, Ricardo Henriques

Optical microscopy is an indispensable tool in life sciences research, but conventional techniques require compromises between imaging parameters like speed, resolution, field of view and phototoxicity. To overcome these limitations, data-driven microscopes incorporate feedback loops between data acquisition and analysis. This review overviews how machine learning enables automated image analysis to optimise microscopy in real time. We first introduce key data-driven microscopy concepts and machine learning methods relevant to microscopy image analysis. Subsequently, we highlight pioneering works and recent advances in integrating machine learning into microscopy acquisition workflows, including optimising illumination, switching modalities and acquisition rates, and triggering targeted experiments. We then discuss the remaining challenges and future outlook. Overall, intelligent microscopes that can sense, analyse and adapt promise to transform optical imaging by opening new experimental possibilities.

光学显微镜是生命科学研究中不可或缺的工具,但传统技术需要在速度、分辨率、视野和光毒性等成像参数之间做出妥协。为了克服这些限制,数据驱动显微镜在数据采集和分析之间建立了反馈回路。本综述概述了机器学习如何通过自动图像分析实时优化显微镜。我们首先介绍与显微图像分析相关的关键数据驱动显微镜概念和机器学习方法。随后,我们重点介绍了将机器学习整合到显微镜采集工作流程中的开创性工作和最新进展,包括优化照明、切换模式和采集率,以及触发有针对性的实验。然后,我们将讨论余下的挑战和未来展望。总之,能够感知、分析和适应的智能显微镜有望通过开辟新的实验可能性来改变光学成像。
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引用次数: 0
Using the traditional microscope for mineral grain orientation determination: A prototype image analysis pipeline for optic-axis mapping (POAM) 使用传统显微镜确定矿物晶粒取向:用于光轴绘图(POAM)的原型图像分析管道。
IF 1.5 4区 工程技术 Q3 MICROSCOPY Pub Date : 2024-03-05 DOI: 10.1111/jmi.13284
Marco Andres Acevedo Zamora, Christoph Eckart Schrank, Balz Samuel Kamber

This paper reports on the development of an open-source image analysis software ‘pipeline’ dedicated to petrographic microscopy. Using conventional rock thin sections and images from a standard polarising microscope, the pipeline can classify minerals and subgrains into objects and obtain information about optic-axis orientation. Five metamorphic rocks were chosen to test and illustrate the method. Thin sections were imaged using reflected and cross- and plane-polarised transmitted light. Images were taken at different angles of the polariser and analyser (360° with 10° steps), both with and without the full-lambda plate. The resulting image stacks were analysed with a modular pipeline for optic-axis mapping (POAM). POAM consists of external and internal software packages that register, segment, classify, and interpret the visible light spectra using object-based image analysis (OBIAS). The mapped fields-of-view and grain orientation stereonets of interest are presented in the context of whole-slide images.

Two innovations are reported. First, we used hierarchical tree region merging on blended multimodal images to classify individual grains of rock-forming minerals into objects. Second, we assembled a new optical mineralogy algorithm chain that identifies the mineral slow axis orientation. The c-axis orientation results were verified with scanning electron microscopy electron backscattered diffraction (SEM-EBSD) data. For quartz (uniaxial) in a granite mylonite the test yielded excellent correspondence of c-axis azimuth and good agreement for inclination. For orthorhombic orthopyroxene in a deformed garnet harzburgite, POAM produced acceptable results for slow axis azimuth. In addition, the method identified slight anisotropy in garnet that would not be appreciated by traditional microscopy.

We propose that our method is ideally suited for two commonly performed tasks in mineralogy. First, for mineral grain classification of entire thin sections scans on blended images to provide automated modal abundance estimates and grain size distribution. Second, for prospective fields of view of interest, POAM can rapidly generate slow axis crystal orientation maps from multiangle image stacks on conventionally prepared thin sections for targeting detailed SEM-EBSD studies.

本文介绍了一种专用于岩石学显微镜的开源图像分析软件 "管道 "的开发情况。利用传统的岩石薄片和标准偏光显微镜的图像,该管道可将矿物和亚晶粒分类为对象,并获取有关光轴方向的信息。我们选择了五种变质岩来测试和说明该方法。使用反射光、交叉偏振光和平面偏振透射光对薄片进行成像。在偏振镜和分析仪的不同角度(360°,每步 10°),使用或不使用全λ板进行成像。通过模块化的光轴映射管道(POAM)对得到的图像堆栈进行分析。POAM 由外部和内部软件包组成,使用基于对象的图像分析(OBIAS)对可见光光谱进行注册、分割、分类和解释。绘制的视场和谷物取向立体图在整张幻灯片图像中呈现。报告有两项创新。首先,我们在混合多模态图像上使用了分层树区域合并技术,将成岩矿物的单个晶粒归类为对象。其次,我们组建了一个新的光学矿物学算法链,可识别矿物慢轴方向。c 轴取向结果通过扫描电子显微镜电子反向散射衍射(SEM-EBSD)数据进行了验证。对于花岗岩麦饭石中的石英(单轴),测试得出了极好的 c 轴方位角对应关系和良好的倾斜度对应关系。对于变形石榴石哈兹堡岩中的正长方正长石,POAM 得出的慢轴方位角结果是可以接受的。此外,该方法还发现了石榴石中的轻微各向异性,而传统的显微镜检查是无法发现这些各向异性的。我们认为,我们的方法非常适合矿物学中的两项常见任务。首先,在混合图像上对整个薄片扫描进行矿物晶粒分类,以提供自动模式丰度估计和晶粒大小分布。其次,对于感兴趣的前瞻性视场,POAM 可以从传统制备的薄片上的多角度图像堆栈中快速生成慢轴晶体取向图,以便进行详细的 SEM-EBSD 研究。
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引用次数: 0
Application of various microscopy techniques to study early-age and longer-term behaviour of super sulphated cement microstructure 应用各种显微镜技术研究超硫酸盐水泥微观结构的早期龄期和长期行为。
IF 2 4区 工程技术 Q3 MICROSCOPY Pub Date : 2024-03-02 DOI: 10.1111/jmi.13281
Migueli Chedrewih, Marta Medala, Christelle Schmid, Emmanuel Garcia, Denis Damidot, Vincent Thiéry

Super sulphated cement (SSC) is a very promising substitute for traditional construction materials (i.e. Portland cement), due to its enhanced durability and particularly low environmental impact. This paper explores the microstructure and certain properties of SSC, focusing on the particular complexities of its microstructure and the difficulties of microanalysis of its hydrates. To do so, SSC paste samples were first cast to identify hydration products using X-ray diffraction, then observed at early age using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and at early and late age using scanning electron microscopy. In addition, concrete cores impregnated with fluorescein in order to highlight porosity, cracking and aggregates debonding were observed under UV light using optical microscopy (OM), showing a complete absence of cracking and aggregate debonding. Both microscopy techniques (CLSM and UV light OM) have been applied to this type of binder for the first time. The results show that SSC microstructure is characterised by a sophisticated intergrowth of various phases, including ettringite and amorphous calcium-(alumina)-silicate hydrate gels. Finally, Monte–Carlo simulation of electron-matter has been provided for a better understanding of EDS analysis.

超硫酸盐水泥(SSC)是一种非常有前途的传统建筑材料(即硅酸盐水泥)的替代品,因为它具有更高的耐久性和特别低的环境影响。本文探讨了超硫酸盐水泥的微观结构和某些特性,重点是其微观结构的特殊复杂性以及对其水合物进行微观分析的困难。为此,首先浇注了 SSC 浆料样品,使用 X 射线衍射法确定水化产物,然后使用共焦激光扫描显微镜(CLSM)观察早期龄期,并使用扫描电子显微镜观察早期和晚期龄期。此外,还使用光学显微镜(OM)在紫外光下观察浸有荧光素的混凝土芯,以突出孔隙率、开裂和集料脱落,结果显示完全没有开裂和集料脱落。这两种显微镜技术(CLSM 和紫外光 OM)都是首次应用于这种类型的粘结剂。结果表明,SSC 的微观结构特点是各种相的复杂交错生长,包括乙长石和无定形的水合硅酸钙(氧化铝)凝胶。最后,为了更好地理解 EDS 分析,还提供了电子-物质的蒙特卡洛模拟。
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引用次数: 0
Comparison of the SMLM technique and the MSSR algorithm in confocal microscopy for super-resolved imaging of cellulose fibres 比较共聚焦显微镜中用于纤维素纤维超分辨成像的 SMLM 技术和 MSSR 算法。
IF 1.5 4区 工程技术 Q3 MICROSCOPY Pub Date : 2024-02-29 DOI: 10.1111/jmi.13287
Josué David Hernández-Varela, Susana Dianey Gallegos-Cerda, José Jorge Chanona-Pérez, Liliana Edith Rojas Candelas, Eduardo Martínez-Mercado

Nowadays, the use of super-resolution microscopy (SRM) is increasing globally due to its potential application in several fields of life sciences. However, a detailed and comprehensive guide is necessary for understanding a single-frame image's resolution limit. This study was performed to provide information about the structural organisation of isolated cellulose fibres from garlic and agave wastes through fluorophore-based techniques and image analysis algorithms. Confocal microscopy provided overall information on the cellulose fibres’ microstructure, while techniques such as total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy facilitated the study of the plant fibres’ surface structures at a sub-micrometric scale. Furthermore, SIM and single-molecule localisation microscopy (SMLM) using the PALM reconstruction wizard can resolve the network of cellulose fibres at the nanometric level. In contrast, the mean shift super-resolution (MSSR) algorithm successfully determined nanometric structures from confocal microscopy images. Atomic force microscopy was used as a microscopy technique for measuring the size of the fibres. Similar fibre sizes to those evaluated with SIM and SMLM were found using the MSSR algorithm and AFM. However, the MSSR algorithm must be cautiously applied because the selection of thresholding parameters still depends on human visual perception. Therefore, this contribution provides a comparative study of SRM techniques and MSSR algorithm using cellulose fibres as reference material to evaluate the performance of a mathematical algorithm for image processing of bioimages at a nanometric scale. In addition, this work could act as a simple guide for improving the lateral resolution of single-frame fluorescence bioimages when SRM facilities are unavailable.

如今,由于超分辨显微镜(SRM)在生命科学多个领域的潜在应用,其使用在全球范围内日益增多。然而,要了解单帧图像的分辨率极限,需要详细而全面的指导。本研究通过基于荧光团的技术和图像分析算法,提供了从大蒜和龙舌兰废弃物中分离出来的纤维素纤维的结构组织信息。共聚焦显微镜提供了纤维素纤维微观结构的整体信息,而全内部反射荧光显微镜等技术则有助于研究亚微米尺度的植物纤维表面结构。此外,使用 PALM 重建向导的 SIM 和单分子定位显微镜(SMLM)可以在纳米级水平上解析纤维素纤维网。相比之下,平均移位超分辨率(MSSR)算法成功地从共聚焦显微镜图像中确定了纳米结构。原子力显微镜被用作测量纤维尺寸的显微镜技术。使用 MSSR 算法和原子力显微镜发现纤维尺寸与 SIM 和 SMLM 评估的尺寸相似。不过,MSSR 算法的应用必须谨慎,因为阈值参数的选择仍然取决于人的视觉感知。因此,本文以纤维素纤维为参考材料,对 SRM 技术和 MSSR 算法进行了比较研究,以评估纳米尺度生物图像处理数学算法的性能。此外,在没有 SRM 设备的情况下,这项工作可作为提高单帧荧光生物图像横向分辨率的简单指南。
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引用次数: 0
Microstructural and micromechanical characteristics of composite osteoconductive coatings deposited by the atmospheric pressure plasma technique 利用常压等离子体技术沉积的复合骨传导涂层的微结构和微机械特性。
IF 1.5 4区 工程技术 Q3 MICROSCOPY Pub Date : 2024-02-28 DOI: 10.1111/jmi.13285
Lukasz Major, D. F. Kopp, R. Major, Jürgen Markus Lackner

Long-term placement of facial implants requires avoiding the formation of fibrous tissue capsules around the artificial material by creating osteoconductive properties of the surface. Most promising approach is the deposition coatings made of materials very similar to bone mineral components, that is, calcium phosphates such as hydroxyapatite (HAp). As part of the research work, an innovative, cost-effective atmospheric pressure plasma deposition (APPD) system was used as a low-temperature coating technology for generating the HAp coatings deposition. Full microstructural characterisation of the coatings using SEM and TEM techniques was carried out in the work. It has been shown that the fully crystalline HAp powder undergoes a transformation during the coatings deposition and the material had a quasi-sintered structure after deposition. The crystalline phase content increased at the coating/substrate interface, while the surface of the HAp was amorphous. This is a very beneficial phenomenon due to the process of bioresorption. The amorphous phase undergoes much faster biodegradation than the crystalline one. In order to increase the bioactivity of the HAp, Zn particles were introduced on the surface of the coating. The TEM microstructural analysis in conjunction with the qualitative analysis of the EDS chemical composition showed that the binding of the Zn particles within the HAp matrix had diffusive character, which is very favourable from the point of view of the quality of the adhesion and the bioactivity of the coating. In the case of such a complex structure and due to its very porous nature, micromechanical analysis was carried out in situ in SEM, that is, by microhardness measurements of both the HAp matrix and the Zn particle. It was shown that the average value of HAp microhardness was 4.395 GPa ± 0.08, while the average value of Zn microhardness was 1.142 GPa ± 0.02

面部植入物的长期植入需要通过在表面形成骨传导特性,避免在人工材料周围形成纤维组织囊。最有前途的方法是使用与骨矿物成分非常相似的材料,即羟基磷灰石(HAp)等磷酸钙沉积涂层。作为研究工作的一部分,我们采用了一种创新的、具有成本效益的常压等离子体沉积(APPD)系统,作为生成 HAp 涂层沉积的低温涂层技术。工作中使用 SEM 和 TEM 技术对涂层进行了全面的微观结构表征。结果表明,完全结晶的 HAp 粉末在涂层沉积过程中发生了转变,沉积后的材料具有准烧结结构。涂层/基底界面上的结晶相含量增加,而 HAp 表面则为无定形。由于生物吸附过程,这是一个非常有益的现象。无定形相的生物降解速度远远快于晶体相。为了提高 HAp 的生物活性,在涂层表面引入了锌颗粒。TEM 显微结构分析和 EDS 化学成分定性分析显示,锌颗粒在 HAp 基质中的结合具有扩散性,这对涂层的附着质量和生物活性非常有利。对于这样一种复杂的结构,由于其多孔性,我们在 SEM 中进行了现场微机械分析,即对 HAp 基体和 Zn 颗粒进行显微硬度测量。结果显示,HAp 显微硬度的平均值为 4.395 GPa ± 0.08,而 Zn 显微硬度的平均值为 1.142 GPa ± 0.02。
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引用次数: 0
Early hydration of C4AF with silica fume and its role on katoite composition C4 AF 与硅灰的早期水化及其对卡托石成分的影响。
IF 2 4区 工程技术 Q3 MICROSCOPY Pub Date : 2024-02-28 DOI: 10.1111/jmi.13280
Martin Boháč, Anežka Zezulová, Michaela Krejčí Kotlánová, Dana Kubátová, Theodor Staněk, Zdeněk Krejza, Dalibor Všianský, Radek Novotný, Jakub Palovčík, Karel Dvořák

C4AF is considered the least reactive main clinker phase, but its reactivity may be affected by adding supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). Pure C4AF was synthesised in a laboratory furnace, and the role of silica fume without gypsum on its early hydration properties was monitored. Burning was carried out in four stages to achieve 99% purity of C4AF. Heat flow development was monitored by isothermal calorimetry over 7 days of hydration at 20°C and 40°C. The role of silica fume on hydrogarnet phase katoite (Ca3Al2(SiO4)3 – x(OH)4x x = 1.5–3) formation during early hydration was studied. Rapid dissolution of C4AF, formation of metastable C-(A,F)-H and its conversion to C3(A, F)H6 was evidenced by isothermal calorimetry as a large exotherm. Changes in microstructure during early hydration were documented by SE micrographs, EDS point analyses, X-ray mapping and line scans by SEM-EDS. The phase composition was characterised by DTA-TGA and QXRD after 7 days of hydration. The katoite diffraction pattern is similar for the reference sample and sample with silica fume, but substitution in its structure can be revealed by X-ray microanalyses. The composition of katoite is variable due to the various extent of substitution of 4OH by SiO44− due to silica fume.

C4 AF 被认为是反应性最低的熟料主相,但其反应性可能会受到添加胶凝辅料(SCM)的影响。在实验室熔炉中合成了纯 C4 AF,并监测了不含石膏的硅灰对其早期水化特性的影响。燃烧分四个阶段进行,使 C4 AF 的纯度达到 99%。在 20°C 和 40°C 水化的 7 天时间里,通过等温量热法对热流发展进行了监测。研究了早期水化过程中硅灰对水榴石相卡托石(Ca3 Al2 (SiO4 )3 - x (OH)4 x x x = 1.5-3)形成的作用。等温量热法显示,C4 AF 快速溶解,形成可转移的 C-(A,F)-H,并转化为 C3 (A,F)H6,产生大量放热。通过 SE 显微照片、EDS 点分析、X 射线制图和 SEM-EDS 线扫描,记录了早期水化过程中微观结构的变化。水化 7 天后,通过 DTA-TGA 和 QXRD 对相组成进行了表征。参考样品和含有硅灰的样品的卡托石衍射图样相似,但通过 X 射线显微分析可以发现其结构中的替代物。由于硅灰对 4OH- 的取代程度不同,卡托石的成分也不同。
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引用次数: 0
A Python tool to determine the thickness of the hydrate layer around clinker grains using SEM-BSE images 利用 SEM-BSE 图像确定熟料颗粒周围水合物层厚度的 Python 工具。
IF 2 4区 工程技术 Q3 MICROSCOPY Pub Date : 2024-02-26 DOI: 10.1111/jmi.13283
Florian Kleiner, Franz Becker, Christiane Rößler, Horst-Michael Ludwig

To accurately simulate the hydration process of cementitious materials, understanding the growth rate of C-S-H layers around clinker grains is crucial. Nonetheless, the thickness of the hydrate layer shows substantial variation around individual grains, depending on their surrounding. Consequently, it is not feasible to measure hydrate layers manually in a reliable and reproducible manner. To address this challenge, a software has been developed to statistically determine the C-S-H thickness, requiring minimal manual interventions for thresholding and for setting limits like particle size or circularity.

This study presents a tool, which automatically identifies suitable clinker grains and and perform statistical measurements of their hydrate layer up to a specimen age of 28 days. The findings reveal a significant increase in the C-S-H layer, starting from 0.45 μm$umu {rm {m}}$ after 1 day and reaching 3.04 μm$umu {rm {m}}$ after 28 days. However, for older specimens, the measurement of the C-S-H layer was not feasible due to limited pore space and clinker grains.

要准确模拟胶凝材料的水化过程,了解熟料颗粒周围 C-S-H 层的生长速度至关重要。然而,水合物层的厚度会因颗粒周围环境的不同而有很大差异。因此,以可靠和可重复的方式手动测量水合物层是不可行的。为了应对这一挑战,我们开发了一款软件,用于统计确定 C-S-H 厚度,只需少量人工干预阈值和设置粒度或圆度等限制。本研究介绍了一种工具,它能自动识别合适的熟料颗粒,并对其水合物层进行统计测量,直至试样龄期达到 28 天。研究结果显示,C-S-H 层明显增加,从 1 天后的 0.45 μ m $umu {rm {m}}$,到 28 天后的 3.04 μ m $umu {rm {m}}$。然而,对于较老的试样,由于有限的孔隙空间和熟料颗粒,C-S-H 层的测量是不可行的。
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引用次数: 0
Investigations on lightweight concrete by in situ compression tests using high-resolution computed tomography (μ-CT) 利用高分辨率计算机断层扫描(μ-CT)对轻质混凝土进行现场压缩试验研究。
IF 2 4区 工程技术 Q3 MICROSCOPY Pub Date : 2024-02-24 DOI: 10.1111/jmi.13279
Cristin Umbach, Bernhard Middendorf

The fracture behaviour of concrete is studied in various micro- and macro-damage models. This is important for estimating serviceability and stability of concrete structures. However, a detailed understanding of the material behaviour under load is often not available. In order to better interpret the fracture behaviour and pattern, images of lightweight concrete were taken using a high-resolution computed tomography (μ-CT) scanner. The samples were loaded between the taken images and the load was kept constant during the measurement. This study describes the method used and how the data set was analysed to investigate displacements and cracks. It has been shown that displacements and damage to the concrete structure can be detected prior to failure, allowing conclusions to be drawn about the structural behaviour. In principle, the μ-CT measurement can be used to examine different kinds of concrete as well as other systems with inorganic binders and to compare the fracture behaviour of different systems.

在各种微观和宏观破坏模型中对混凝土的断裂行为进行了研究。这对于评估混凝土结构的适用性和稳定性非常重要。然而,人们往往无法详细了解材料在荷载作用下的行为。为了更好地解释断裂行为和模式,我们使用高分辨率计算机断层扫描(μ-CT)仪拍摄了轻质混凝土的图像。在拍摄图像之间对样品进行加载,并在测量过程中保持加载恒定。本研究介绍了所使用的方法以及如何分析数据集以研究位移和裂缝。研究表明,混凝土结构的位移和损坏可以在失效前被检测出来,从而得出结构行为的结论。原则上,μ-CT 测量可用于检查不同种类的混凝土以及含有无机粘结剂的其他系统,并比较不同系统的断裂行为。
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引用次数: 0
More than just ‘added value’: The perils of not establishing shared core facilities in resource-constrained communities 不仅仅是 "附加值":在资源有限的社区不建立共享核心设施的危险。
IF 2 4区 工程技术 Q3 MICROSCOPY Pub Date : 2024-02-20 DOI: 10.1111/jmi.13277
Mai A. Rahmoon, Chad M. Hobson, Jesse S. Aaron, Harikrushnan Balasubramanian, Teng-Leong Chew

The accelerating pace of technological advancements necessitates specialised expertise and cutting-edge instruments to maintain competitive research in life sciences. Core facilities – collaborative laboratories equipped with state-of-the-art tools and staffed by expert personnel – are vital resources that support diverse scientific endeavours. However, their adoption in lower-income communities has been comparatively stagnant due to both financial and cultural challenges. This paper explores the perils of not supporting core facilities on national research enterprises, underscoring the need for balanced investments in discovery science and crucial infrastructure support. We explore the implications from the perspectives of funders, university leaders and lab heads. We advocate for a paradigm shift to recognise these facilities as essential components of national research efforts. Core facilities are positioned not as optional but as strategic investments that can catalyse breakthroughs, particularly in environments with limited resources.

科技进步的步伐不断加快,需要专业的知识和尖端的仪器来保持生命科学研究的竞争力。核心设施--配备最先进工具和专业人员的合作实验室--是支持各种科学努力的重要资源。然而,由于资金和文化方面的挑战,这些设施在低收入社区的应用相对停滞不前。本文探讨了不支持国家研究企业核心设施的危害,强调了对发现科学和关键基础设施支持进行平衡投资的必要性。我们从资助者、大学领导和实验室负责人的角度探讨了其中的影响。我们主张转变模式,承认这些设施是国家研究工作的重要组成部分。核心设施的定位不是可有可无,而是能够促进突破的战略性投资,尤其是在资源有限的环境中。
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引用次数: 0
GaN atomic electric fields from a segmented STEM detector: Experiment and simulation 来自分段 STEM 探测器的氮化镓原子电场:实验与模拟
IF 1.5 4区 工程技术 Q3 MICROSCOPY Pub Date : 2024-02-19 DOI: 10.1111/jmi.13276
Tim Grieb, Florian F. Krause, Thorsten Mehrtens, Christoph Mahr, Beeke Gerken, Marco Schowalter, Bert Freitag, Andreas Rosenauer

Atomic electric fields in a thin GaN sample are measured with the centre-of-mass approach in 4D-scanning transmission electron microscopy (4D-STEM) using a 12-segmented STEM detector in a Spectra 300 microscope. The electric fields, charge density and potential are compared to simulations and an experimental measurement using a pixelated 4D-STEM detector. The segmented detector benefits from a high recording speed, which enables measurements at low radiation doses. However, there is measurement uncertainty due to the limited number of segments analysed in this study.

利用 Spectra 300 显微镜中的 12 段 STEM 探测器,在 4D 扫描透射电子显微镜(4D-STEM)中采用质量中心法测量了氮化镓薄样品中的原子电场。电场、电荷密度和电势与使用像素化 4D-STEM 探测器进行的模拟和实验测量结果进行了比较。分段探测器具有记录速度快的优点,可以在低辐射剂量下进行测量。不过,由于本研究分析的分段数量有限,因此存在测量不确定性。
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引用次数: 0
期刊
Journal of microscopy
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