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Resurgence Following Higher or Lower Quality Alternative Reinforcement 质量更高或更低的替代性强化后的恢复。
IF 2.7 3区 心理学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2024-02-08 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.904
Timothy A. Shahan, Gabrielle M. Sutton, Jack Van Allsburg, Matias Avellaneda, Brian D. Greer

Resurgence is a temporary increase in a previously suppressed target behavior following a worsening in reinforcement conditions. Previous studies have examined how higher rates or magnitudes of alternative reinforcement affect suppression of the target behavior and subsequent resurgence. However, there has been no investigation of the effects of higher versus lower qualities of alternative reinforcement on resurgence. Using a three-phase resurgence preparation with rats, the present experiments examined the effects of an alternative reinforcer that was of higher (Experiment 1) or lower (Experiment 2) quality than the reinforcer that had previously maintained the target behavior. The results of both experiments showed greater reductions in target behavior with a higher quality alternative reinforcer and larger increases in target responding when a higher quality alternative reinforcer was removed. Along with prior findings with higher rates and magnitudes of alternative reinforcement, these findings suggest that variations in reinforcer dimensions that increase the efficacy of alternative reinforcement also tend to increase resurgence when alternative reinforcement is removed. The results are discussed in terms of the resurgence as choice in context model and in terms of potential clinical implications.

卷土重来是指在强化条件恶化后,先前被抑制的目标行为暂时增加。以往的研究已经探讨了替代性强化的比率或幅度越高,对目标行为的抑制和随后的复发有何影响。但是,还没有研究过替代性强化的质量高低对复发的影响。本实验利用大鼠的三阶段复发准备,考察了比之前维持目标行为的强化物质量更高(实验 1)或更低(实验 2)的替代强化物的影响。这两项实验的结果都表明,如果使用质量更高的替代性强化物,目标行为的减少幅度会更大,而如果移除质量更高的替代性强化物,目标反应的增加幅度也会更大。这些结果表明,替代性强化物的频率和幅度越高,强化物的维度就越多,从而提高了替代性强化物的效果,而当替代性强化物被移除时,强化物的维度也会增加目标行为的恢复。本文将从 "卷土重来作为情境选择 "模型和潜在的临床意义两个方面对研究结果进行讨论。
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引用次数: 0
A systematic review of enhanced resurgence paradigms 对强化复活范例的系统性审查。
IF 2.7 3区 心理学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2024-01-29 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.902
Hunter King, Lauren Martone, Brianna Laureano, John Michael Falligant

Following successful treatment in which problem behavior is reduced, it may reemerge as a function of changes in contextual stimuli or the worsening of reinforcement conditions for an alternative response. Although understudied, preliminary research suggests that simultaneous changes in contextual stimuli and reinforcement conditions may represent particularly exigent treatment challenges that create the condition for additive or superadditive relapse. The purpose of the present review was to systematically examine the relapse literature involving simultaneous changes in contextual stimuli and reinforcement conditions in relapse tests and experimental preparations arranged to evaluate their effect on response recovery. We identified 16 empirical articles spanning 27 experiments. Although all experiments included at least one condition that experienced a change in contextual stimuli and worsening of alternative reinforcement conditions, only two experiments included the comparison conditions needed to precisely evaluate additive and superadditive relapse. Our findings establish the preclinical generality of relapse effects associated with simultaneous changes to reinforcement conditions and contextual stimuli across a range of subjects, schedule arrangements, response topographies, reinforcers, and types of contextual changes. We make several recommendations for future research based on our findings from this nascent and clinically relevant subdomain of the relapse literature.

在成功治疗并减少问题行为之后,问题行为可能会因为环境刺激的变化或替代反应强化条件的恶化而再次出现。尽管研究不足,但初步研究表明,情境刺激和强化条件的同时变化可能代表着特别严峻的治疗挑战,为叠加或超叠加复发创造了条件。本综述的目的是系统地研究涉及在复发测试和实验准备中同时改变情境刺激和强化条件的复发文献,以评估它们对反应恢复的影响。我们确定了 16 篇实证文章,涉及 27 项实验。虽然所有实验中至少有一个条件经历了情境刺激的改变和替代强化条件的恶化,但只有两个实验包含了精确评估加成复发和超加成复发所需的比较条件。我们的研究结果证明,与强化条件和情境刺激同时发生变化相关的复发效应在临床前具有普遍性,其影响范围涵盖一系列受试者、时间表安排、反应拓扑图、强化物和情境变化类型。根据我们在复发文献中这一新生的、与临床相关的子领域的研究结果,我们对未来的研究提出了几点建议。
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引用次数: 0
An analysis of coordinated responding of pigeons 对鸽子协调反应的分析。
IF 2.7 3区 心理学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2024-01-03 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.899
Brian R. Katz, Kennon A. Lattal

Experimental analyses of coordinated responding (i.e., cooperation) have been derived from a procedure described by Skinner (1962) in which reinforcers were delivered to a pair of subjects (a dyad) if both responded within a short interval, thus satisfying a coordination contingency. Although it has been suggested that this contingency enhances rates of temporally coordinated responding, limitations of past experiments have raised questions concerning this conclusion. The present experiments addressed some of these limitations by holding the schedule of reinforcement (Experiment 1: fixed ratio 1; Experiment 2; variable interval 20 s) constant across phases and between dyad members and by varying, in different conditions, the number of response keys (one to three) across which coordination could occur. Greater percentages of coordinated responding occurred under the coordinated-reinforcement phases than under independent-reinforcement phases in most conditions. The one exception during the one-key condition of Experiment 1 appeared to be a consequence of variability introduced by the independent-reinforcement phase procedure. Furthermore, coordination percentages decreased with increasing response options under both schedules. These results confirm and extend the finding that coordination contingencies control higher rates of temporally coordinated responding than independent-reinforcement contingencies do.

对协调反应(即合作)的实验分析源于斯金纳(1962 年)描述的一个程序,在这个程序中,如果一对被试(二人组)在很短的时间间隔内都做出了反应,就会向他们提供强化物,从而满足协调的或然条件。尽管有人认为这种或然性提高了时间协调反应的比率,但过去实验的局限性使人们对这一结论产生了疑问。本实验解决了其中的一些局限性,即在不同阶段和不同配对成员之间保持强化时间表不变(实验 1:固定比率 1;实验 2:可变间隔 20 秒),并在不同条件下改变可发生协调反应的反应键数量(1 到 3)。在大多数条件下,协调强化阶段比独立强化阶段的协调反应比例更高。实验 1 中单键条件下的一个例外似乎是独立强化阶段程序带来的变异性造成的。此外,在两种方案下,随着反应选项的增加,协调百分比都会下降。这些结果证实并扩展了协调条件比独立强化条件控制更高的时间协调反应率这一结论。
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引用次数: 0
A molar view of goal direction and habit 从臼齿角度看目标方向和习惯。
IF 2.7 3区 心理学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2024-01-03 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.891
William M. Baum

When we treat behavior within an evolutionary framework and as temporally extended flow, two fundamental questions arise: (a) What is an organism? and (b) What is behavior? An organism is a process that stays intact by constantly exchanging energy with the environment. It takes in resources and puts out waste. The behavior of an organism consists of those process parts of the organism process that make up the exchange. These activities serve the function of reproducing, which generally depends on surviving. Surviving and reproducing depend on responding to phylogenetically important events (PIEs). A PIE induces activities that enhance or mitigate the PIE. Organisms respond not only to a PIE but also to events that covary with the PIE. Both activities and environmental features may covary with a PIE. When either type of covariance is introduced to an organism, behavior adapts over time. The early stages of adaptation constitute what researchers call “goal direction,” and the later stages constitute what researchers call “habit.” Behavior and environment constitute a dynamic system, and manipulations of the covariances and environmental features of the system allow many experimental interventions. This molar approach allows experiments on goal direction and habit to be understood without appeal to everyday mentalistic terms.

当我们在进化框架内将行为视为时间上延伸的流动时,就会产生两个基本问题:(a)什么是有机体?生物体是一个通过不断与环境交换能量而保持完整的过程。它吸收资源,排出废物。有机体的行为包括有机体过程中构成交换的那些过程部分。这些活动服务于繁殖的功能,而繁殖一般取决于生存。生存和繁殖取决于对系统重要事件(PIE)的反应。系统重要事件会诱发一些活动,以增强或减轻系统重要事件的影响。生物不仅要对 PIE 做出反应,还要对与 PIE 共同发生的事件做出反应。活动和环境特征都可能与 PIE 共存。当生物体引入任何一种共变时,其行为都会随着时间的推移而适应。适应的早期阶段构成研究者所说的 "目标方向",后期阶段构成研究者所说的 "习惯"。行为和环境构成了一个动态系统,通过对系统中的协方差和环境特征进行操作,可以进行多种实验干预。这种 "摩尔法 "可以让人们理解目标方向和习惯的实验,而无需诉诸日常的心智学术语。
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引用次数: 0
Habit and persistence 习惯和坚持。
IF 2.7 3区 心理学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2023-12-27 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.894
Mark E. Bouton

Voluntary behaviors (operants) can come in two varieties: Goal-directed actions, which are emitted based on the remembered value of the reinforcer, and habits, which are evoked by antecedent cues and performed without the reinforcer's value in active memory. The two are perhaps most clearly distinguished with the reinforcer-devaluation test: Goal-directed actions are suppressed when the reinforcer is separately devalued and responding is tested in extinction, and habitual behaviors are not. But what is the function of habit learning? Habits are often thought to be strong and unusually persistent. The present selective review examines this idea by asking whether habits identified by the reinforcer-devaluation test are more resistant to extinction, resistant to the effects of other contingency change, vulnerable to relapse, resistant to the weakening effects of context change, or permanently in place once they are learned. Surprisingly little evidence supports the idea that habits are permanent or more persistent. Habits are more context-specific than goal-directed actions are. Methods that make behavior persistent do not necessarily work by encouraging habit. The function of habit learning may not be to make a behavior strong or more persistent but to make it automatic and efficient in a particular context.

自愿行为(操作行为)有两种:目标定向行为是基于强化物的记忆价值而做出的行为,而习惯行为则是由前因线索唤起,在没有强化物价值的有效记忆的情况下做出的行为。这两种行为在强化物评估测试中可能最容易区分:当强化物被单独贬值并对反应进行消减测试时,目标定向行为会被抑制,而习惯性行为则不会。但习惯学习的功能是什么呢?习惯通常被认为具有很强的异常持久性。本研究选择性地探讨了这一观点,即通过强化物-评价测试确定的习惯是否更耐受消亡、耐受其他或然性变化的影响、易复发、耐受情境变化的弱化影响,或者一旦学会就永久存在。令人惊讶的是,几乎没有证据支持习惯是永久的或更持久的观点。与目标行动相比,习惯更受环境的影响。使行为持久的方法并不一定是通过鼓励养成习惯来实现的。习惯学习的功能可能不是使行为变得更强或更持久,而是使其在特定情境中变得自动和有效。
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引用次数: 0
A neural autopilot theory of habit: Evidence from consumer purchases and social media use 习惯的神经自动驾驶理论:来自消费者购买和社交媒体使用的证据。
IF 2.7 3区 心理学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2023-12-27 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.897
Colin Camerer, Yi Xin, Clarice Zhao

This article applies a two-process “neural autopilot” model to field data. The autopilot model hypothesizes that habitual choice occurs when the reward from a behavior has low numerical “doubt” (i.e., reward prediction errors are small). The model toggles between repeating a previous choice (habit) when doubt is low and making a goal-directed choice when doubt is high. The model has ingredients established in animal learning and cognitive neuroscience and is simple enough to make nonobvious predictions. In two empirical applications, we fit the model to field data on purchases of canned tuna and posting on the Chinese social media site Weibo. This style of modeling is called “structural” because there is a theoretical model of how different variables influence choices by agents (the “structure”), which tightly restricts how hidden variables lead to observed choices. There is empirical support for the model, more strongly for tuna purchases than for Weibo posting, relative to a baseline “reduced-form” model in which current choices are correlated with past choices without a mechanistic (structural) explanation. An interesting set of predictions can also be derived about how consumers react to different kinds of changes in prices and qualities of goods (this is called “counterfactual analysis”).

本文将双过程 "神经自动驾驶 "模型应用于现场数据。自动驾驶模型假定,当对某一行为的奖励产生较低的数字 "怀疑"(即奖励预测误差较小)时,就会出现习惯性选择。当怀疑程度低时,该模型会在重复之前的选择(习惯)和怀疑程度高时做出目标导向的选择之间切换。该模型已在动物学习和认知神经科学中得到证实,而且足够简单,可以做出非显而易见的预测。在两个经验应用中,我们将该模型与购买金枪鱼罐头和在中国社交媒体网站微博上发帖的实地数据进行了拟合。这种建模方式之所以被称为 "结构式",是因为存在一个不同变量如何影响行为主体选择的理论模型("结构"),它严格限制了隐藏变量如何导致观察到的选择。与基线 "简化形式 "模型相比,该模型得到了经验上的支持,即当前选择与过去的选择相关,但没有机制(结构)上的解释。我们还可以得出一系列有趣的预测,即消费者如何对商品价格和质量的不同变化做出反应(这被称为 "反事实分析")。
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引用次数: 0
Problematic mobile phone use as impulsive choice: Development and empirical verification of a reinforcer-pathology model 有问题的手机使用是一种冲动性选择:强化剂-病理学模型的开发与经验验证。
IF 2.7 3区 心理学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2023-12-26 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.900
Yusuke Hayashi

Problematic mobile phone use is characterized by its “impulsive” nature; users engage in it despite their negative attitude toward it. From a behavioral-economic perspective, this attitude–behavior discrepancy is generated by competing contingencies that involve smaller-sooner social reinforcers associated with mobile phone use and larger-later prosocial reinforcers potentially compromised by phone use. Based on this conceptualization, the reinforcer-pathology model of problematic mobile phone use is proposed, which posits that such phone use stems from excessive delay discounting of the social and prosocial reinforcers and/or excessive demand for the social reinforcers. A secondary data analysis of previously published studies was conducted, with the novel addition of principal component analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis of these data. The results generated evidence that supports the reinforcer-pathology model proposed in this article. Based on the theoretical analyses and accumulated empirical evidence, theory-driven prevention and intervention strategies for problematic mobile phone use are proposed. Overall, the reinforcer-pathology model of problematic mobile phone use provides a comprehensive framework for understanding and addressing this growing issue.

有问题的手机使用具有 "冲动 "的特点;用户尽管对手机使用持负面态度,但仍会使用手机。从行为经济学的角度来看,这种态度与行为之间的差异是由相互竞争的或然因素造成的,这些或然因素涉及与手机使用相关的较小较快的社会强化物,以及可能因手机使用而受损的较大较晚的亲社会强化物。基于这一概念,我们提出了问题手机使用的强化物-病理学模型,该模型认为,手机的使用源于对社交强化物和亲社会强化物的过度延迟折现和/或对社交强化物的过度需求。我们对以前发表的研究进行了二次数据分析,并对这些数据进行了新颖的主成分分析和分层聚类分析。分析结果为本文提出的强化物-病理学模型提供了支持证据。根据理论分析和积累的经验证据,提出了针对问题手机使用的理论驱动的预防和干预策略。总之,问题手机使用的强化物-病理学模型为理解和解决这一日益严重的问题提供了一个全面的框架。
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引用次数: 0
Introduction to the special issue: Goal direction and habit in operant behavior 特刊简介:操作行为中的目标方向和习惯。
IF 2.7 3区 心理学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2023-12-26 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.901
Poppy Watson, Eric A. Thrailkill, Laura H. Corbit, Mark E. Bouton
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引用次数: 0
The temporal structure of goal-directed and habitual operant behavior 目标定向和习惯性操作行为的时间结构。
IF 2.7 3区 心理学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2023-12-22 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.896
Eric A. Thrailkill, Carter W. Daniels

Operant behavior can reflect the influence of goal-directed and habitual processes. These can be distinguished by changes to response rate following devaluation of the reinforcing outcome. Whether a response is goal directed or habitual depends on whether devaluation affects response rate. Response rate can be decomposed into frequencies of bouts and pauses by analyzing the distribution of interresponse times. This study sought to characterize goal-directed and habitual behaviors in terms of bout-initiation rate, within-bout response rate, bout length, and bout duration. Data were taken from three published studies that compared sensitivity to devaluation following brief and extended training with variable-interval schedules. Analyses focused on goal-directed and habitual responding, a comparison of a habitual response to a similarly trained response that had been converted back to goal-directed status after a surprising event, and a demonstration of contextual control of habit and goal direction in the same subjects. Across experiments and despite responses being clearly distinguished as goal directed and habitual by total response rate, analyses of bout-initiation rate, within-bout rate, bout length, and bout duration did not reveal a pattern that distinguished goal-directed from habitual responding.

操作行为可以反映目标导向过程和习惯过程的影响。这两种过程可以通过强化结果贬值后反应率的变化来区分。反应是目标定向的还是习惯性的,取决于贬值是否会影响反应率。通过分析反应间时间的分布,可以将反应率分解为阵发频率和停顿频率。本研究试图从阵列启动率、阵列内反应率、阵列长度和阵列持续时间等方面来描述目标定向行为和习惯性行为的特征。数据来自三项已发表的研究,这些研究比较了采用可变间隔时间计划的短暂训练和延长训练后对贬值的敏感性。分析的重点是目标定向反应和习惯性反应、习惯性反应与经过类似训练但在发生令人惊讶的事件后又转回目标定向状态的反应的比较,以及在同一实验对象中对习惯和目标定向的情境控制的演示。在所有实验中,尽管根据总反应率可以将反应明确区分为目标定向反应和习惯性反应,但对突发启动率、回合内反应率、回合长度和回合持续时间的分析并没有发现区分目标定向反应和习惯性反应的模式。
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引用次数: 0
Positive correlation between measures of habitual responding and motivated responding in mice 小鼠习惯性反应与动机性反应之间的正相关性
IF 2.7 3区 心理学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Pub Date : 2023-12-17 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.895
Kathleen G. Bryant, Jacqueline M. Barker

Habit and motivation are thought to be separate processes, with motivated behavior often considered to be goal directed, whereas habits are defined by the absence of goal-directed control over behavior. However, there has been increasing interrogation of the binary nature of habitual versus goal-directed behavior. Furthermore, although drug and alcohol exposure can promote the formation of habits, drug seeking itself can also be highly flexible, pointing toward the need for complex consideration of the parallel processes that drive behavior. The goal of the current study was to determine whether there was a relation between motivation—as measured by progressive ratio—and habit—as measured by contingency degradation—and whether this relation was affected by ethanol exposure history and sex. The results showed that these measures were positively correlated such that greater contingency insensitivity was associated with achieving higher break points on the progressive-ratio task. However, this relation depended on reinforcement schedule history, ethanol exposure history, and sex. These point to potential relations between measures of habit and motivation and stress the importance of carefully parsing behavioral findings and assays. These findings are also expected to inform future substance use research, as drug history may affect these relations.

习惯和动机被认为是两个不同的过程,动机行为通常被认为是目标导向的,而习惯则是指缺乏目标导向的行为控制。然而,越来越多的人开始质疑习惯与目标导向行为的二元性质。此外,虽然接触毒品和酒精会促进习惯的形成,但寻求毒品本身也具有很大的灵活性,这表明需要对驱动行为的平行过程进行复杂的考虑。本研究的目的是确定以渐进比率衡量的动机与以或然性退化衡量的习惯之间是否存在关系,以及这种关系是否会受到乙醇接触史和性别的影响。研究结果表明,这些测量指标呈正相关,因此对或然率不敏感的程度越高,在累进比率任务中达到的断点就越高。然而,这种关系取决于强化时间表历史、乙醇暴露历史和性别。这些都表明了习惯和动机测量之间的潜在关系,并强调了仔细分析行为发现和测定的重要性。这些发现也有望为未来的药物使用研究提供参考,因为吸毒史可能会影响这些关系。
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引用次数: 0
期刊
Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior
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