The need for low cost, flexible, and highly sensitive gas sensors is growing rapidly across sectors like environmental monitoring, healthcare, and food safety. Among various sensing materials, polyaniline (PANI) has attracted significant attention due to its reversible redox behaviour, tunable conductivity, and simple room temperature synthesis. However, despite its promise, pristine PANI often falls short in terms of selectivity, mechanical stability, and long term performance. In response, researchers have increasingly focused on blending PANI with other materials such as metal oxides, carbon nanostructures, biopolymers, and green dopants to create multifunctional composites that combine the best of both components. These hybrid systems not only improve sensor sensitivity and selectivity but also enable operation under variable environmental conditions and on flexible platforms. This review provides a comprehensive account of the latest progress in the design, synthesis, and application of PANI based blends and composites for gas sensing. It explores key fabrication strategies, sensing mechanisms, and material performance relationships, while also identifying challenges related to reproducibility, environmental stability, and integration. By compiling comparative data and emerging trends, this review highlights the scientific and practical potential of PANI composites as next generation materials for intelligent and eco-friendly gas sensing technologies.
{"title":"Polyaniline based blends and composites for gas sensing: A comprehensive review on materials, mechanisms, and applications","authors":"Aditi Jain , Mahesh Dhonde , Ankit Soni , Ashok Kumar , Kirti Sahu","doi":"10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106610","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106610","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The need for low cost, flexible, and highly sensitive gas sensors is growing rapidly across sectors like environmental monitoring, healthcare, and food safety. Among various sensing materials, polyaniline (PANI) has attracted significant attention due to its reversible redox behaviour, tunable conductivity, and simple room temperature synthesis. However, despite its promise, pristine PANI often falls short in terms of selectivity, mechanical stability, and long term performance. In response, researchers have increasingly focused on blending PANI with other materials such as metal oxides, carbon nanostructures, biopolymers, and green dopants to create multifunctional composites that combine the best of both components. These hybrid systems not only improve sensor sensitivity and selectivity but also enable operation under variable environmental conditions and on flexible platforms. This review provides a comprehensive account of the latest progress in the design, synthesis, and application of PANI based blends and composites for gas sensing. It explores key fabrication strategies, sensing mechanisms, and material performance relationships, while also identifying challenges related to reproducibility, environmental stability, and integration. By compiling comparative data and emerging trends, this review highlights the scientific and practical potential of PANI composites as next generation materials for intelligent and eco-friendly gas sensing technologies.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":20916,"journal":{"name":"Reactive & Functional Polymers","volume":"220 ","pages":"Article 106610"},"PeriodicalIF":5.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145884678","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2026-01-02DOI: 10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106637
Qianzhao Wang , Zijian Wu , Yue Zhao , Zhaojun Wang , Hang Li , Wenhua Yang , Ning Guo , Ling Weng , Wei Zhao , Guoxing Yang , Juanna Ren , Hassan Algadi , Junguo Gao
This study successfully developed a high-performance thermal management composite material through innovative material design to address the heat dissipation demands of high-power electronic devices. Employing a hydrothermal synthesis method, the research achieved in-situ growth of one-dimensional zinc oxide (ZnO) nanorods on the surface of two-dimensional hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) with excellent insulation properties, thereby constructing a unique “sea urchin-like” h-BN@ZnO hybrid filler. The filler was a composite with a thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) matrix via a scrape coating process. Leveraging the bridging effect of one-dimensional nanorods, this structure interconnects isolated three-dimensional thermal conduction pathways into a continuous network, thereby effectively mitigating the limitation of inferior out-of-plane thermal conductivity induced by the in-plane orientation of two-dimensional hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN).Processing shear forces induced orientated alignment of the filler particles, while the bridging effect of ZnO nanorods formed an efficient three-dimensional thermal conduction network within the polymer matrix. At a 60 wt% filler loading, the composite exhibits outstanding comprehensive properties: an out-of-plane thermal conductivity as high as 2.13 W/(m·K), representing a 61-fold improvement over pure TPU. It simultaneously maintains excellent electrical insulation and thermal stability, with minimal performance degradation after 120 thermal cycles. This composite material, combining high thermal conductivity, high insulation, and tunable flexibility, offers advanced thermal solutions for flexible electronics, aerospace, and other fields, presenting broad application prospects.
{"title":"“Urchin-like” h-BN@ZnO hybrids inspire highly thermally conductive polyurethane composites via 3D phonon pathways","authors":"Qianzhao Wang , Zijian Wu , Yue Zhao , Zhaojun Wang , Hang Li , Wenhua Yang , Ning Guo , Ling Weng , Wei Zhao , Guoxing Yang , Juanna Ren , Hassan Algadi , Junguo Gao","doi":"10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106637","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106637","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study successfully developed a high-performance thermal management composite material through innovative material design to address the heat dissipation demands of high-power electronic devices. Employing a hydrothermal synthesis method, the research achieved in-situ growth of one-dimensional zinc oxide (ZnO) nanorods on the surface of two-dimensional hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) with excellent insulation properties, thereby constructing a unique “sea urchin-like” h-BN@ZnO hybrid filler. The filler was a composite with a thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) matrix via a scrape coating process. Leveraging the bridging effect of one-dimensional nanorods, this structure interconnects isolated three-dimensional thermal conduction pathways into a continuous network, thereby effectively mitigating the limitation of inferior out-of-plane thermal conductivity induced by the in-plane orientation of two-dimensional hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN).Processing shear forces induced orientated alignment of the filler particles, while the bridging effect of ZnO nanorods formed an efficient three-dimensional thermal conduction network within the polymer matrix. At a 60 wt% filler loading, the composite exhibits outstanding comprehensive properties: an out-of-plane thermal conductivity as high as 2.13 W/(m·K), representing a 61-fold improvement over pure TPU. It simultaneously maintains excellent electrical insulation and thermal stability, with minimal performance degradation after 120 thermal cycles. This composite material, combining high thermal conductivity, high insulation, and tunable flexibility, offers advanced thermal solutions for flexible electronics, aerospace, and other fields, presenting broad application prospects.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":20916,"journal":{"name":"Reactive & Functional Polymers","volume":"220 ","pages":"Article 106637"},"PeriodicalIF":5.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145939719","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-12-13DOI: 10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106605
Farzaneh Qodrati-nasrabadi , Issa Sardivand-chegini , Saeed Zakavi
<div><div>In order to overcome the problem of leaching of porphyrins from solid supports as well as the extensive degradation of porphyrin sensitizers, the tetra sodium salts of <em>meso</em>-tetrakis(4-carboxyphenyl)porphyrin (Na<sub>4</sub>H<sub>2</sub>TCPP) and the corresponding Zn(II) complex (Na<sub>4</sub>ZnTCPP), immobilized into the pores of nanostructured mesoporous Amberlite IRA-900, nanoAmbN(Me)<sub>3</sub>Cl, were synthesized and used as sensitizers in aerobic photooxidation of sulfides in acetonitrile and water. Also, the molecular complex of nanoAmbN(Me)<sub>3</sub>@H<sub>2</sub>TCPP with 2,3-Dichloro-5,6-dicyano-1,4-benzoquinone (DDQ) and its dication with H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> were prepared and used in photooxidation of sulfides. FESEM, BET, TGA, FT-IR and UV–vis diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) were used to characterize the nanocomposites. Interestingly, nanoAmbN(Me)<sub>3</sub>@H<sub>2</sub>TCPP was highly stable against leaching of the porphyrin under long-term exposure to acidic conditions at a pH value as low as zero (1.0 M HCl). This finding was attributed to the very low solubility of the peripherally tetra-protonated porphyrins (H<sub>6</sub>TCPP and H<sub>4</sub>ZnTCPP) in water as well as the strong electrostatic interactions between the –COOH groups of the porphyrin and –<sup>+</sup>N(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub> residues of the polymer. The singlet oxygen quantum yield (ϕ<sub>Δ</sub>) of the sensitizers decreased as nanoAmbN(Me)<sub>3</sub>@ZnTCPP (0.73) > > nanoAmbN(Me)<sub>3</sub>@H<sub>2</sub>TCPP (0.22) ≥ nanoAmbN(Me)<sub>3</sub>@H<sub>4</sub>TCPP(HSO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub> (0.18) ∼ nanoAmbN(Me)<span><span><sub>3</sub>@H<sub>2</sub>TCPP(DDQ)<sub>2</sub> (0.17</span><svg><path></path></svg></span>). Although a similar photocatalytic activity was observed for nanoAmbN(Me)<sub>3</sub>@H<sub>2</sub>TCPP and nanoAmbN(Me)<sub>3</sub>@ZnTCPP in the oxidation of more reactive sulfides, the former was significantly more efficient in the oxidation of sulfides with electron-withdrawing and/or sterically demanding substituents at the sulfur atom. This observation was attributed to the higher degree of oxidative degradation of nanoAmbN(Me)<sub>3</sub>@ZnTCPP. The oxidative stability of nanoAmbN(Me)<sub>3</sub>@H<sub>2</sub>TCPP was significantly increased due to the formation of the H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> diacid and DDQ molecular complex of H<sub>2</sub>TCPP. However, a two- to three-fold increase in the time required for the completion of the reaction was observed in the presence of the latter sensitizers. The increased steric hindrance around the singlet oxygen generating sites of the sensitizers caused by the presence of HSO<sub>4</sub><sup>−</sup> anions and the DDQ molecules was suggested to explain this observation. Furthermore, a significant decrease in the reactivity of sulfides towards singlet oxygen by increasing steric hindrance around the sulfur atom was observed. The presence CH<sub>3</sub>C
{"title":"Meso-tetrakis(4-carboxyphenyl)porphyrin derivatives anchored to nanostructured amberlite: New porphyrin photosensitizers with unusually high long-term leaching stability, photocatalytic activity and oxidative stability","authors":"Farzaneh Qodrati-nasrabadi , Issa Sardivand-chegini , Saeed Zakavi","doi":"10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106605","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106605","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In order to overcome the problem of leaching of porphyrins from solid supports as well as the extensive degradation of porphyrin sensitizers, the tetra sodium salts of <em>meso</em>-tetrakis(4-carboxyphenyl)porphyrin (Na<sub>4</sub>H<sub>2</sub>TCPP) and the corresponding Zn(II) complex (Na<sub>4</sub>ZnTCPP), immobilized into the pores of nanostructured mesoporous Amberlite IRA-900, nanoAmbN(Me)<sub>3</sub>Cl, were synthesized and used as sensitizers in aerobic photooxidation of sulfides in acetonitrile and water. Also, the molecular complex of nanoAmbN(Me)<sub>3</sub>@H<sub>2</sub>TCPP with 2,3-Dichloro-5,6-dicyano-1,4-benzoquinone (DDQ) and its dication with H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> were prepared and used in photooxidation of sulfides. FESEM, BET, TGA, FT-IR and UV–vis diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) were used to characterize the nanocomposites. Interestingly, nanoAmbN(Me)<sub>3</sub>@H<sub>2</sub>TCPP was highly stable against leaching of the porphyrin under long-term exposure to acidic conditions at a pH value as low as zero (1.0 M HCl). This finding was attributed to the very low solubility of the peripherally tetra-protonated porphyrins (H<sub>6</sub>TCPP and H<sub>4</sub>ZnTCPP) in water as well as the strong electrostatic interactions between the –COOH groups of the porphyrin and –<sup>+</sup>N(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub> residues of the polymer. The singlet oxygen quantum yield (ϕ<sub>Δ</sub>) of the sensitizers decreased as nanoAmbN(Me)<sub>3</sub>@ZnTCPP (0.73) > > nanoAmbN(Me)<sub>3</sub>@H<sub>2</sub>TCPP (0.22) ≥ nanoAmbN(Me)<sub>3</sub>@H<sub>4</sub>TCPP(HSO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub> (0.18) ∼ nanoAmbN(Me)<span><span><sub>3</sub>@H<sub>2</sub>TCPP(DDQ)<sub>2</sub> (0.17</span><svg><path></path></svg></span>). Although a similar photocatalytic activity was observed for nanoAmbN(Me)<sub>3</sub>@H<sub>2</sub>TCPP and nanoAmbN(Me)<sub>3</sub>@ZnTCPP in the oxidation of more reactive sulfides, the former was significantly more efficient in the oxidation of sulfides with electron-withdrawing and/or sterically demanding substituents at the sulfur atom. This observation was attributed to the higher degree of oxidative degradation of nanoAmbN(Me)<sub>3</sub>@ZnTCPP. The oxidative stability of nanoAmbN(Me)<sub>3</sub>@H<sub>2</sub>TCPP was significantly increased due to the formation of the H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> diacid and DDQ molecular complex of H<sub>2</sub>TCPP. However, a two- to three-fold increase in the time required for the completion of the reaction was observed in the presence of the latter sensitizers. The increased steric hindrance around the singlet oxygen generating sites of the sensitizers caused by the presence of HSO<sub>4</sub><sup>−</sup> anions and the DDQ molecules was suggested to explain this observation. Furthermore, a significant decrease in the reactivity of sulfides towards singlet oxygen by increasing steric hindrance around the sulfur atom was observed. The presence CH<sub>3</sub>C","PeriodicalId":20916,"journal":{"name":"Reactive & Functional Polymers","volume":"220 ","pages":"Article 106605"},"PeriodicalIF":5.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145799425","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-12-11DOI: 10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106604
Ahmed Abdelhamid Maamoun , Mashael Daghash Alqahtani , Khalid Z. Elwakeel , Ahmed M. Elgarahy
Rising global water scarcity and worsening human-driven climate change urgently demand advanced wastewater treatment technologies that can produce environmentally safe and high-purity effluents. This study presents a high-performance flexible polyurethane foam (FPUF) composite enhanced with 2–10 wt% lignocellulosic wood waste (WW) bio-filler to improve wastewater treatment and energy recovery. The FPUF-WW composite aimed for efficient organic dyes removal and reuse as a solid fuel, addressing both environmental pollution and WW management. Physicochemical analyses (e.g., FTIR, TGA, SEM, gel fraction, rheology, compression performance, and porosity) confirmed successful WW integration and enhanced properties. Rheology showed increased viscosity with shear-thickening behavior from polymer–filler interactions. Cavity size reduced from 0.996 mm (neat FPUF) to 0.653 mm (FPUF-WW8), while porosity decreased from 78.64 % to 71.15 %. Foam density increased by 19.76 %, with a gel fraction peak at 95.2 % for 8 wt% WW. Thermal stability improved, increasing the T5% from 248.0 °C for blank FPUF to 260.0 °C for the FPUF/WW8. Compression strength rose by 22.96 % at 8 wt% WW compared to blank FPUF. The mechanical durability of the FPUF/WW8 improved by 10.88 % in density compared to the FPUF sample. The stable porous structure of FPUF-WW8 after dyes adsorption, supporting its reusability. Adsorption experiments for MB and CR dyes were systematically conducted by varying several operational parameters. Optimal removal efficiencies were 96.8 % (MB, pH 10.6) and 93.9 % (CR, pH 3.5). Adsorption kinetics followed a PSORE model; the Langmuir isotherm best described the process, with maximum capacities of 357.14 mg g−1, and 250 mg g−1, for MB and CR dyes, respectively. The adsorption retained >86 % efficiency after six reuse cycles. Real wastewater treatment showed >80 % dyes removal. Energy recovery from spent FPUF-WW8 composite revealed high calorific values: 23,410 kJ/kg (native), 23,128 kJ/kg (MB-laden), and 22,631 kJ/kg (CR-laden). With a production cost around €5.54/kg, the FPUF-WW material promises dual-function wastewater remediation and sustainable fuel generation, endorsing circular economy principles.
{"title":"Bifunctional flexible polyurethane foam-lignocellulosic wood waste composite for cationic/anionic dyes remediation and sustainable solid fuel recovery","authors":"Ahmed Abdelhamid Maamoun , Mashael Daghash Alqahtani , Khalid Z. Elwakeel , Ahmed M. Elgarahy","doi":"10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106604","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106604","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Rising global water scarcity and worsening human-driven climate change urgently demand advanced wastewater treatment technologies that can produce environmentally safe and high-purity effluents. This study presents a high-performance flexible polyurethane foam (FPUF) composite enhanced with 2–10 wt% lignocellulosic wood waste (WW) bio-filler to improve wastewater treatment and energy recovery. The FPUF-WW composite aimed for efficient organic dyes removal and reuse as a solid fuel, addressing both environmental pollution and WW management. Physicochemical analyses (e.g., FTIR, TGA, SEM, gel fraction, rheology, compression performance, and porosity) confirmed successful WW integration and enhanced properties. Rheology showed increased viscosity with shear-thickening behavior from polymer–filler interactions. Cavity size reduced from 0.996 mm (neat FPUF) to 0.653 mm (FPUF-WW8), while porosity decreased from 78.64 % to 71.15 %. Foam density increased by 19.76 %, with a gel fraction peak at 95.2 % for 8 wt% WW. Thermal stability improved, increasing the T5% from 248.0 °C for blank FPUF to 260.0 °C for the FPUF/WW8. Compression strength rose by 22.96 % at 8 wt% WW compared to blank FPUF. The mechanical durability of the FPUF/WW8 improved by 10.88 % in density compared to the FPUF sample. The stable porous structure of FPUF-WW8 after dyes adsorption, supporting its reusability. Adsorption experiments for MB and CR dyes were systematically conducted by varying several operational parameters. Optimal removal efficiencies were 96.8 % (MB, pH 10.6) and 93.9 % (CR, pH 3.5). Adsorption kinetics followed a PSORE model; the Langmuir isotherm best described the process, with maximum capacities of 357.14 mg g<sup>−1</sup>, and 250 mg g<sup>−1</sup>, for MB and CR dyes, respectively. The adsorption retained >86 % efficiency after six reuse cycles. Real wastewater treatment showed >80 % dyes removal. Energy recovery from spent FPUF-WW8 composite revealed high calorific values: 23,410 kJ/kg (native), 23,128 kJ/kg (MB-laden), and 22,631 kJ/kg (CR-laden). With a production cost around €5.54/kg, the FPUF-WW material promises dual-function wastewater remediation and sustainable fuel generation, endorsing circular economy principles.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":20916,"journal":{"name":"Reactive & Functional Polymers","volume":"220 ","pages":"Article 106604"},"PeriodicalIF":5.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145884796","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-12-19DOI: 10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106616
Noureddine El Messaoudi , Jordana Georgin , Dison S.P. Franco , Mesut Yılmazoğlu , Başak Temur , Youssef Miyah , Mohammed Benjelloun , Ashraf M. Al-Msiedeen
Porphyran is a sulfated polysaccharide obtained from red algae (Porphyra spp.). Porphyran is seen as a versatile and sustainable biopolymer that can be used as a composite material in green water treatment applications. Because it has many hydroxyls, sulfate, and carboxyl groups, porphyran is expected to be favorable as a base biopolymer for adsorption, ion exchange, and chemical modification during processing, and for the removal of dyes, heavy metals, and pharmaceuticals in wastewater. This review highlights recent developments in porphyran's synthesis, structural modification, and hybridization with inorganic nanoparticles, biopolymers, and carbonaceous materials for enhanced adsorption capacity, selectivity, and reusability. This review also focuses on structure-property-performance relationships and synergism in composites. Lastly, this review discusses adsorption capacity mechanisms based on electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonding, and π–π stacking upon consideration of different environmental conditions. Further, consideration of scalability and regeneration of porphyran-based composites when used in a green chemistry fashion, within the concepts of circular bioeconomy and environmental considerations, is taken into account. Scaffolds with differences in research focus, such as standardization of test conditions, evaluation of properties in real wastewater matrices, and life cycle assessment, are also presented, given knowledge gaps. Lastly, future perspectives highlight the combination of porphyran-based adsorbents with advanced oxidation and membrane processes. Additionally, the potential application of machine learning tools to optimize design and performance is also suggested. Collectively, this review illustrates that, as cost-effective, biodegradable, and high-performance materials, porphyran-based composites offer great potential for sustainable and environmentally favorable water purification.
{"title":"Composites based on porphyran as an adsorbent for environmentally friendly water treatment","authors":"Noureddine El Messaoudi , Jordana Georgin , Dison S.P. Franco , Mesut Yılmazoğlu , Başak Temur , Youssef Miyah , Mohammed Benjelloun , Ashraf M. Al-Msiedeen","doi":"10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106616","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106616","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Porphyran is a sulfated polysaccharide obtained from red algae (<em>Porphyra</em> spp.). Porphyran is seen as a versatile and sustainable biopolymer that can be used as a composite material in green water treatment applications. Because it has many hydroxyls, sulfate, and carboxyl groups, porphyran is expected to be favorable as a base biopolymer for adsorption, ion exchange, and chemical modification during processing, and for the removal of dyes, heavy metals, and pharmaceuticals in wastewater. This review highlights recent developments in porphyran's synthesis, structural modification, and hybridization with inorganic nanoparticles, biopolymers, and carbonaceous materials for enhanced adsorption capacity, selectivity, and reusability. This review also focuses on structure-property-performance relationships and synergism in composites. Lastly, this review discusses adsorption capacity mechanisms based on electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonding, and π–π stacking upon consideration of different environmental conditions. Further, consideration of scalability and regeneration of porphyran-based composites when used in a green chemistry fashion, within the concepts of circular bioeconomy and environmental considerations, is taken into account. Scaffolds with differences in research focus, such as standardization of test conditions, evaluation of properties in real wastewater matrices, and life cycle assessment, are also presented, given knowledge gaps. Lastly, future perspectives highlight the combination of porphyran-based adsorbents with advanced oxidation and membrane processes. Additionally, the potential application of machine learning tools to optimize design and performance is also suggested. Collectively, this review illustrates that, as cost-effective, biodegradable, and high-performance materials, porphyran-based composites offer great potential for sustainable and environmentally favorable water purification.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":20916,"journal":{"name":"Reactive & Functional Polymers","volume":"220 ","pages":"Article 106616"},"PeriodicalIF":5.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145884680","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Stretchable, self-adhesive, and conductive hydrogels show great promise for applications in wearable sensors and energy harvesting systems. In this work, we developed an SA/P(AM-co-HEA)/TA/Ca2+-BTO (S/P/T/Ca-BTO) hydrogel by incorporating tannic acid (TA) and barium titanate (BTO) into a poly(acrylamide-co-hydroxyethyl acrylate) (P(AM-co-HEA)) network, followed by cross-linking with sodium alginate (SA) and CaCl2. The resulting hydrogel exhibited a set of compelling properties, including a tensile stress of 127.6 kPa, extreme stretchability (2328 %), excellent fatigue resistance, strong adhesion (27.3 kPa), and good electrical conductivity (2.49 S/m). A flexible strain sensor fabricated from this hydrogel demonstrated high sensitivity (GF = 2.31) and exceptional stability, showing no significant degradation over 500 loading–unloading cycles, which enables reliable long-term monitoring of human motion. Moreover, the incorporation of BTO nanoparticles was pivotal in boosting the electrical output-performance of the S/P/T/Ca-BTO hydrogel-assembled piezoelectric-triboelectric hybrid nanogenerator (SPTCB-PTENG). When encapsulated with Ecoflex 00–10 and operated in single-electrode mode, the device achieved an open-circuit voltage of 164 V, a short-circuit current of 2.8 μA, and a transferred charge of 56.1 nC. As a self-powered sensor, the SPTCB-PTENG also exhibited durable performance and high responsiveness in recognizing handwritten information and detecting Morse code-encrypted messages. With its dual functionality in strain sensing and energy harvesting, this hydrogel enables its use as an integrated component in multifunctional wearable devices.
{"title":"High-performance piezoelectric-triboelectric hybrid nanogenerator based on stretchable, self-adhesive, and conductive hydrogels for self-powered sensing","authors":"Qiao Zhang, Jiayao Cheng, Runi Hou, Yaohui Cheng, Maolin Yu, Na Li, Jianxiong Xu","doi":"10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106626","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106626","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Stretchable, self-adhesive, and conductive hydrogels show great promise for applications in wearable sensors and energy harvesting systems. In this work, we developed an SA/P(AM-<em>co</em>-HEA)/TA/Ca<sup>2+</sup>-BTO (S/P/T/Ca-BTO) hydrogel by incorporating tannic acid (TA) and barium titanate (BTO) into a poly(acrylamide-<em>co</em>-hydroxyethyl acrylate) (P(AM-<em>co</em>-HEA)) network, followed by cross-linking with sodium alginate (SA) and CaCl<sub>2</sub>. The resulting hydrogel exhibited a set of compelling properties, including a tensile stress of 127.6 kPa, extreme stretchability (2328 %), excellent fatigue resistance, strong adhesion (27.3 kPa), and good electrical conductivity (2.49 S/m). A flexible strain sensor fabricated from this hydrogel demonstrated high sensitivity (GF = 2.31) and exceptional stability, showing no significant degradation over 500 loading–unloading cycles, which enables reliable long-term monitoring of human motion. Moreover, the incorporation of BTO nanoparticles was pivotal in boosting the electrical output-performance of the S/P/T/Ca-BTO hydrogel-assembled piezoelectric-triboelectric hybrid nanogenerator (SPTCB-PTENG). When encapsulated with Ecoflex 00–10 and operated in single-electrode mode, the device achieved an open-circuit voltage of 164 V, a short-circuit current of 2.8 μA, and a transferred charge of 56.1 nC. As a self-powered sensor, the SPTCB-PTENG also exhibited durable performance and high responsiveness in recognizing handwritten information and detecting Morse code-encrypted messages. With its dual functionality in strain sensing and energy harvesting, this hydrogel enables its use as an integrated component in multifunctional wearable devices.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":20916,"journal":{"name":"Reactive & Functional Polymers","volume":"220 ","pages":"Article 106626"},"PeriodicalIF":5.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145884695","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-12-13DOI: 10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106608
Ecaterina Stela Dragan, Maria Valentina Dinu
Nitrogen based synthetic polycations (NBSPC) imposed themselves in the daily life by their tremendous applications. This review systematically presents the main categories of NBSPC following a structural criterion, with a focus on the synthesis strategies, namely: homo- and copolymerization of the monomers containing preformed amino or quaternary ammonium salt groups, ring-opening polymerization, condensation polymerization, cyclopolymerization and chemical reactions on nonionic polymers. Composites based on NBSPCs with polysaccharides, other organic polymers, inorganic particles such as silica, clays, metal oxides have emerged as versatile materials with even more expanded applications. The key studies on the environmental applications of the NBSPCs-based composites, highlighted in this review, support the broad potential of these very attractive materials in the carbon capture, removal of dyes, heavy metal ions, oxyanions, pesticides. Identification of the most suitable NBSPCs and their composites for biomedical applications such as drug delivery systems, gene transfection, wound management is also extensively followed in the review. The wide opportunities in designing novel NBSPCs-based composites have been assessed.
{"title":"Nitrogen based synthetic polycations as ubiquitous items of composites with environmental and biomedical applications","authors":"Ecaterina Stela Dragan, Maria Valentina Dinu","doi":"10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106608","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106608","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Nitrogen based synthetic polycations (NBSPC) imposed themselves in the daily life by their tremendous applications. This review systematically presents the main categories of NBSPC following a structural criterion, with a focus on the synthesis strategies, namely: homo- and copolymerization of the monomers containing preformed amino or quaternary ammonium salt groups, ring-opening polymerization, condensation polymerization, cyclopolymerization and chemical reactions on nonionic polymers. Composites based on NBSPCs with polysaccharides, other organic polymers, inorganic particles such as silica, clays, metal oxides have emerged as versatile materials with even more expanded applications. The key studies on the environmental applications of the NBSPCs-based composites, highlighted in this review, support the broad potential of these very attractive materials in the carbon capture, removal of dyes, heavy metal ions, oxyanions, pesticides. Identification of the most suitable NBSPCs and their composites for biomedical applications such as drug delivery systems, gene transfection, wound management is also extensively followed in the review. The wide opportunities in designing novel NBSPCs-based composites have been assessed.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":20916,"journal":{"name":"Reactive & Functional Polymers","volume":"220 ","pages":"Article 106608"},"PeriodicalIF":5.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145799427","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-12-20DOI: 10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106620
Yao Li , Yong Ye , Ju Guo , Yi Liu , Songlun Liu , Yong Chen , Bing Du , Liang Chang
Fluorescent hydrogels were considered a superior platform for developing functional materials in multiple application areas to date. The design and application of aggregation-caused quenching (ACQ) based fluorophores in fluorescent hydrogels are fundamentally constrained by their inherent aggregation-caused quenching behavior. Herein, we report the first fluorescent hydrogel utilizing a perylene diimide (PDIC) as a covalent crosslinker, overcoming inherent ACQ limitations to enable multidimensional information encryption. The hydrogel exhibited reversible Fe3+-responsive fluorescence switching and pronounced differential swelling/deformation responses to pH 8 stimulation. Fe3+ was used for the first information encryption input. Subsequently, exposure to Ca2+ or alkaline conditions (pH 8) induces a shape deformation that enables secondary information encryption. This strategy establishes a new paradigm for utilizing ACQ fluorophores in functional hydrogels, promoting the development of more ACQ-based fluorescent hydrogels for anti-counterfeiting and secure data storage applications.
{"title":"Dynamic information encryption via fluorescent hydrogels based on Perylene Diimide crosslinker","authors":"Yao Li , Yong Ye , Ju Guo , Yi Liu , Songlun Liu , Yong Chen , Bing Du , Liang Chang","doi":"10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106620","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106620","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Fluorescent hydrogels were considered a superior platform for developing functional materials in multiple application areas to date. The design and application of aggregation-caused quenching (ACQ) based fluorophores in fluorescent hydrogels are fundamentally constrained by their inherent aggregation-caused quenching behavior. Herein, we report the first fluorescent hydrogel utilizing a perylene diimide (PDIC) as a covalent crosslinker, overcoming inherent ACQ limitations to enable multidimensional information encryption. The hydrogel exhibited reversible Fe<sup>3+</sup>-responsive fluorescence switching and pronounced differential swelling/deformation responses to pH 8 stimulation. Fe<sup>3+</sup> was used for the first information encryption input. Subsequently, exposure to Ca<sup>2+</sup> or alkaline conditions (pH 8) induces a shape deformation that enables secondary information encryption. This strategy establishes a new paradigm for utilizing ACQ fluorophores in functional hydrogels, promoting the development of more ACQ-based fluorescent hydrogels for anti-counterfeiting and secure data storage applications.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":20916,"journal":{"name":"Reactive & Functional Polymers","volume":"220 ","pages":"Article 106620"},"PeriodicalIF":5.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145884795","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-12-11DOI: 10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106598
Chin-Lung Chiang , Yi-Jen Huang , Ming-Liao Tsai , Zi-Hao Wu , Yu-Cheng Kuo , Ting-Wei Wu , Ioannis Zuburtikudis
Chemical recycling has emerged as a promising approach in polymer recycling strategies due to its capacity for depolymerization, structural selectivity, and its pivotal role in advancing the development of sustainable recycled materials. However, recycled resins often exhibit inferior mechanical properties compared to their pristine counterparts. This study investigates the incorporation of a linear toughening agent, neopentyl glycol diglycidyl ether (LTA), in conjunction with ferric chloride (FeCl₃), a Lewis acid catalyst, to enhance the performance and reusability of recycled epoxy resins. Recycled resins obtained via catalytic degradation were compounded with pristine resin, LTA, and FeCl₃. The incorporation of LTA facilitated the formation of linear bridges between polymer chains, promoting effective crosslinking. The combined structural and mechanical results, including reduced swelling ratios, diminished -OH intensity in FTIR, and the incorporation of LTA, as confirmed by 13C NMR, suggest a more efficiently crosslinked network structure within the recycled resin matrix. Concurrently, FeCl₃ catalyzed esterification and crosslinking reactions between epoxy groups and anhydride curing agents, further contributing to network formation. Experimental findings revealed that the combined use of LTA and FeCl₃ significantly improved the tensile strength, thereby restoring the mechanical integrity of recycled epoxy resins and demonstrating their potential for reuse following mechanical recovery.
{"title":"Catalyst-assisted reconstruction of recycled epoxy resins with restored mechanical performance","authors":"Chin-Lung Chiang , Yi-Jen Huang , Ming-Liao Tsai , Zi-Hao Wu , Yu-Cheng Kuo , Ting-Wei Wu , Ioannis Zuburtikudis","doi":"10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106598","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106598","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Chemical recycling has emerged as a promising approach in polymer recycling strategies due to its capacity for depolymerization, structural selectivity, and its pivotal role in advancing the development of sustainable recycled materials. However, recycled resins often exhibit inferior mechanical properties compared to their pristine counterparts. This study investigates the incorporation of a linear toughening agent, neopentyl glycol diglycidyl ether (LTA), in conjunction with ferric chloride (FeCl₃), a Lewis acid catalyst, to enhance the performance and reusability of recycled epoxy resins. Recycled resins obtained via catalytic degradation were compounded with pristine resin, LTA, and FeCl₃. The incorporation of LTA facilitated the formation of linear bridges between polymer chains, promoting effective crosslinking. The combined structural and mechanical results, including reduced swelling ratios, diminished -OH intensity in FTIR, and the incorporation of LTA, as confirmed by <sup>13</sup>C NMR, suggest a more efficiently crosslinked network structure within the recycled resin matrix. Concurrently, FeCl₃ catalyzed esterification and crosslinking reactions between epoxy groups and anhydride curing agents, further contributing to network formation. Experimental findings revealed that the combined use of LTA and FeCl₃ significantly improved the tensile strength, thereby restoring the mechanical integrity of recycled epoxy resins and demonstrating their potential for reuse following mechanical recovery.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":20916,"journal":{"name":"Reactive & Functional Polymers","volume":"220 ","pages":"Article 106598"},"PeriodicalIF":5.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145760812","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2026-03-01Epub Date: 2025-12-18DOI: 10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106613
Jihyun Lee , Ganga Ratnamma Rudru , Kyung-Man Choi , Ildoo Chung
Ultra-stretchable polymeric elastomers with excellent mechanical properties are in high demand for diverse applications, particularly in stretchable electronics. However, achieving both high tensile strength and large elongation remains a major challenge due to the inherent trade-off between strength and stretchability. In this study, highly stretchable polyurethanes were synthesized by incorporating slide-ring polyrotaxanes (PRs) as both chain extenders and crosslinkers. The sliding mechanism of PR crosslinks effectively dissipates stress during deformation while maintaining network integrity, thereby overcoming the conventional limitation between strength and stretchability. PR, a molecularly threaded supramolecular structure, was first synthesized by combining poly(propylene glycol) (PPG) with β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) to form a pseudo-polyrotaxane, which was subsequently end-capped with trityl glycine to prevent dethreading. Using this PR, flexible polyurethanes were synthesized with slide-ring PR as a chain extender, together with 1,4-butanediol (1,4-BD) and β-CD, yielding elastomeric networks with enhanced molecular mobility and flexibility. The synthesized PRs and polyurethanes were characterized by spectroscopic, thermal, and mechanical analyses. Compared with conventional 1,4-BD crosslinked systems, PR-crosslinked polyurethanes exhibited distinct thermal behavior, attributed to the intrinsic mobility of PR crosslinks. Notably, polyurethanes containing 75 % PR achieved ultra-stretchable elongation at break while retaining tensile strength. Furthermore, PR-based polyurethanes simultaneously exhibited enhanced tensile strength, elongation, and toughness compared with chemically crosslinked BDPU, due to the synergistic effects of slide-ring mobility and β-CD supramolecular interactions. These findings establish slide-ring PR-based chain extension and crosslinking as an effective molecular design strategy for next-generation polyurethane elastomers with synergistically improved strength and stretchability.
{"title":"Highly stretchable polyurethanes synthesized via slide-ring polyrotaxanes as chain extenders and crosslinkers with enhanced mechanical properties","authors":"Jihyun Lee , Ganga Ratnamma Rudru , Kyung-Man Choi , Ildoo Chung","doi":"10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106613","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2025.106613","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Ultra-stretchable polymeric elastomers with excellent mechanical properties are in high demand for diverse applications, particularly in stretchable electronics. However, achieving both high tensile strength and large elongation remains a major challenge due to the inherent trade-off between strength and stretchability. In this study, highly stretchable polyurethanes were synthesized by incorporating slide-ring polyrotaxanes (PRs) as both chain extenders and crosslinkers. The sliding mechanism of PR crosslinks effectively dissipates stress during deformation while maintaining network integrity, thereby overcoming the conventional limitation between strength and stretchability. PR, a molecularly threaded supramolecular structure, was first synthesized by combining poly(propylene glycol) (PPG) with β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) to form a pseudo-polyrotaxane, which was subsequently end-capped with trityl glycine to prevent dethreading. Using this PR, flexible polyurethanes were synthesized with slide-ring PR as a chain extender, together with 1,4-butanediol (1,4-BD) and β-CD, yielding elastomeric networks with enhanced molecular mobility and flexibility. The synthesized PRs and polyurethanes were characterized by spectroscopic, thermal, and mechanical analyses. Compared with conventional 1,4-BD crosslinked systems, PR-crosslinked polyurethanes exhibited distinct thermal behavior, attributed to the intrinsic mobility of PR crosslinks. Notably, polyurethanes containing 75 % PR achieved ultra-stretchable elongation at break while retaining tensile strength. Furthermore, PR-based polyurethanes simultaneously exhibited enhanced tensile strength, elongation, and toughness compared with chemically crosslinked BDPU, due to the synergistic effects of slide-ring mobility and β-CD supramolecular interactions. These findings establish slide-ring PR-based chain extension and crosslinking as an effective molecular design strategy for next-generation polyurethane elastomers with synergistically improved strength and stretchability.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":20916,"journal":{"name":"Reactive & Functional Polymers","volume":"220 ","pages":"Article 106613"},"PeriodicalIF":5.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145884673","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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