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Is Cognitive Flexibility Equivalent to Shifting? Investigating Cognitive Flexibility in Multiple Domains. 认知灵活性等同于转移吗?调查多个领域的认知灵活性。
Q1 Psychology Pub Date : 2024-10-10 eCollection Date: 2024-01-01 DOI: 10.5334/joc.403
Thea Ionescu, Robert L Goldstone, Doris Rogobete, Mihaela Taranu

In the present exploratory study we investigate whether cognitive flexibility is a unitary mechanism underlying flexible behaviours across many domains or a domain-specific capacity. The literature on cognitive flexibility is divided into several research lines that do not converge. The most prominent one considers flexibility an executive function that represents the ability to switch among rules or tasks. In other research traditions it is associated with distinct components, such as the capacity to place an item into many categories (in creativity tests) or a characteristic of different cognitive or perceptual processes (e.g., flexible language use, flexibility in mathematics, perceptual flexibility). To determine whether flexibility in different domains relies on a general shared mechanism, 221 subjects from two countries (The United States and Romania, mean age 19.52 years) were tested online with several measurements from four different domains of investigation: language, mathematics, perception, and executive functions (specifically, set shifting). All tasks required some form of cognitive flexibility. In addition, we measured math anxiety to see how this relates to mathematical flexibility. The results show very few and small significant partial correlations among the tasks. They also highlight that there is no unitary overarching "executive" factor. The most prominent common factor was speed of processing for mathematical and language response times. Shifting does not seem to be a mechanism that underlies flexibility in all the investigated domains. While we acknowledge the need for replication of this study, the data suggest that the construct of shifting does not exhaust the notion of flexibility as it arises across cognitive domains.

在本探索性研究中,我们将研究认知灵活性是一种跨领域灵活行为的统一机制,还是一种特定领域的能力。关于认知灵活性的文献分为几条研究路线,但并不一致。最著名的一种研究认为,灵活性是一种执行功能,代表了在规则或任务之间切换的能力。在其他研究传统中,灵活性与不同的组成部分相关联,如将一个项目归入多个类别的能力(在创造力测试中)或不同认知或知觉过程的特征(如灵活使用语言、数学灵活性、知觉灵活性)。为了确定不同领域的灵活性是否依赖于一种普遍共享的机制,我们对来自两个国家(美国和罗马尼亚,平均年龄 19.52 岁)的 221 名受试者进行了在线测试,测试内容涉及四个不同的调查领域:语言、数学、知觉和执行功能(特别是集合转换)。所有任务都需要某种形式的认知灵活性。此外,我们还测量了数学焦虑,以了解数学焦虑与数学灵活性之间的关系。结果表明,这些任务之间的部分相关性很小。这些结果还突出表明,并不存在一个统一的 "执行 "因素。最突出的共同因素是数学和语言反应时间的处理速度。转移似乎并不是所有研究领域中灵活性的基础机制。虽然我们承认有必要重复这项研究,但这些数据表明,移位这一概念并没有穷尽灵活性的概念,因为灵活性是跨认知领域的。
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引用次数: 0
Agent-Object Relationships in Level-2 Visual Perspective Taking: An Eye-Tracking Study. 二级视觉透视中的代理-对象关系:眼动追踪研究
Q1 Psychology Pub Date : 2024-10-10 eCollection Date: 2024-01-01 DOI: 10.5334/joc.398
Ben Ford, Rebecca Monk, Damien Litchfield, Adam Qureshi

Visual perspective taking (VPT) generates a shared frame of reference for understanding how the world appears to others. Whilst greater cognitive and neurophysiological demands are associated with increasing angular distance between the self and other is well documented, accompanying attentional characteristics are not currently understood. Furthermore, although age and group status have been shown to impact task performance, other important cues, such as the relationship between agents and objects, have not been manipulated. Therefore, 35 university students participated in an eye-tracking experiment where they completed a VPT task with agents positioned at a low or high angular disparity (45° or 135° respectively). The congruence between the age of the agent (child vs adult) and the object they are attending to (e.g., teddy-bear vs kettle) was also manipulated. Participants were required to respond to the direction of the object from the agent's position. The findings reveal more fixations and increased dwell-times on agents compared to objects, but this was moderated by the age of the task agent. Results also showed more attentional transitions between agents and objects at higher angular disparities. These results converge with behavioural and neurophysiological descriptions of task performance in previous studies. Furthermore, the congruency of the relationship between agents and objects also impacted attention shifting and response times, highlighting the importance of understanding how social cues and contexts can modulate VPT processes in everyday contexts and social interaction.

视觉透视(VPT)为理解他人眼中的世界提供了一个共同的参照系。随着自我与他人之间角度距离的增加,对认知和神经生理的要求也随之增加,这一点有据可查,但伴随而来的注意力特征目前尚不清楚。此外,虽然年龄和群体地位已被证明会影响任务的完成,但其他重要的线索,如主体和客体之间的关系,还没有被操纵过。因此,35 名大学生参加了一项眼动跟踪实验,在该实验中,他们完成了一项 VPT 任务,任务中的代理处于低角度差距或高角度差距(分别为 45° 或 135°)。实验还操纵了代理的年龄(儿童与成人)和他们关注的对象(如泰迪熊与水壶)之间的一致性。受试者需要从代理人的位置对物体的方向做出反应。研究结果表明,与物体相比,被试对代理的注意力更集中,停留时间更长,但这一情况会受到任务代理年龄的影响。研究结果还显示,在角度差距较大的情况下,主体和物体之间的注意力转换更多。这些结果与以往研究中对任务表现的行为和神经生理学描述一致。此外,代理和对象之间关系的一致性也会影响注意力的转移和反应时间,这凸显了了解社会线索和情境如何在日常情境和社会互动中调节 VPT 过程的重要性。
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引用次数: 0
Putting the "Return" Back in the Inhibition of Return Effect in Working Memory. 将 "返回 "放回工作记忆的抑制返回效应中。
Q1 Psychology Pub Date : 2024-10-01 eCollection Date: 2024-01-01 DOI: 10.5334/joc.401
Caro Hautekiet, Naomi Langerock, Evie Vergauwe

The inhibition of return effect in perception refers to the observation that one is slower to re-attend a location that was attended right before, compared to a location that was not attended right before. Johnson et al. (2013, Psych. Sc., 24, 1104-1112, doi:10.1177/0956797612466414) observed a similar inhibitory effect for an attended item in working memory, which the authors referred to as an inhibition-of-return-like effect. However, testing an inhibition of return effect requires attention to be disengaged from the attended item, before testing whether participants are slower to return to said item. This was assumed but not experimentally manipulated in the paradigm by Johnson and colleagues. In the current study, we investigated whether an inhibition of return effect can be observed in working memory when attention is experimentally disengaged from the attended item before measuring whether responses are slower for the item in question. Participants were indeed slower to respond to a memory probe that matched the item that was attended right before, compared to a memory probe that matched the item that was not attended right before. Thus, our test with more experimental control did result in an inhibition of return effect in working memory.

知觉中的回视抑制效应指的是,与之前未关注的位置相比,人们重新关注之前关注过的位置会更慢。Johnson 等人(2013 年,《心理科学》,24 期,1104-1112,doi:10.1177/0956797612466414)在工作记忆中观察到对已注意项目的类似抑制效应,作者将其称为类似返回的抑制效应。然而,测试返回抑制效应需要在测试参与者是否较慢地返回到所述项目之前,将注意力从被关注项目上分离出来。约翰逊及其同事的研究假设了这一点,但并没有在实验中对其进行操作。在本研究中,我们研究了在实验中将注意力从被关注项目上分离时,是否能在工作记忆中观察到返回抑制效应,然后再测量对相关项目的反应速度是否变慢。与之前被注意的项目相匹配的记忆探究相比,参与者对与之前被注意的项目相匹配的记忆探究的反应确实更慢。因此,我们在测试中采用了更多的实验控制,确实在工作记忆中产生了抑制返回效应。
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引用次数: 0
Unconscious Processing Contaminates Objective Measures of Conscious Perception: Evidence From the Liminal Prime Paradigm. 无意识加工污染了有意识知觉的客观测量:来自边缘质点范式的证据。
Q1 Psychology Pub Date : 2024-10-01 eCollection Date: 2024-01-01 DOI: 10.5334/joc.402
Nitzan Micher, Diana Mazenko, Dominique Lamy

Assessing unconscious processing requires a valid measure of conscious perception. However, the two measures most commonly used, subjective reports and forced-choice discrimination, do not always converge: observers can discriminate stimuli rated as invisible better than chance. A debated issue is whether this phenomenon indicates that subjective reports of unawareness are contaminated by conscious perception, or that forced-choice discrimination performance is contaminated by unconscious processing. To address this question, we took advantage of a previously reported dissociation using masked response priming: for primes rated as invisible on a multi-point scale, response priming occurs only for fast trials, whereas for consciously perceived primes, response priming occurs across response times. Here, we replicated this dissociation, confirming that invisibility-reports were not contaminated by conscious perception. Crucially, we measured prime-discrimination performance within the same experiment and found above-chance performance for unseen primes. Together, these findings suggest that forced-choice discrimination performance is contaminated by unconscious processing.

评估无意识加工需要对有意识感知进行有效测量。然而,最常用的两种测量方法--主观报告和强迫选择辨别法--并不总是一致的:观察者对被评为 "不可见 "的刺激物的辨别能力要好于偶然性。一个备受争议的问题是,这种现象是否表明主观报告中的不可见性受到了有意识感知的污染,或者强制选择辨别能力受到了无意识加工的污染。为了解决这个问题,我们利用了以前报道过的使用掩蔽反应引物的分离现象:对于在多点量表中被评为不可见的质点,反应引物只出现在快速试验中,而对于有意识感知的质点,反应引物出现在整个反应时间中。在这里,我们复制了这种分离,证实了不可见性报告没有受到有意识感知的污染。最重要的是,我们在同一实验中测量了素材辨别能力,发现未见素材的辨别能力高于机会。这些发现共同表明,强迫选择的辨别能力会受到无意识加工的影响。
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引用次数: 0
Editorial for the special issue on "Prediction, Creativity, and Cultural Evolution in Music Cognition". 为 "音乐认知中的预测、创造力和文化演变 "特刊撰写社论。
Q1 Psychology Pub Date : 2024-09-09 eCollection Date: 2024-01-01 DOI: 10.5334/joc.399
Tudor Popescu, Andrea Schiavio, Felix Haiduk

Music making across cultures arguably involves a blend of innovation and adherence to established norms. This integration allows listeners to recognise a range of innovative, surprising, and functional elements in music, while also associating them to a certain tradition or style. In this light, musical creativity may be seen to involve the novel recombination of shared elements and rules, which can in itself give rise to new cultural conventions. Put simply, future norms rely on past knowledge and present action; this holds for music as it does for other cultural domains. A key process permeating this temporal transition, with regards to both music making and music listening, is prediction. Recent findings suggest that as we listen to music, our brain is constantly generating predictions based on prior knowledge acquired in a given enculturation context. Those predictions, in turn, can shape our appraisal of the music, in a continual perception-action loop. This dynamic process of predicting and calibrating expectations may enable shared musical realities, that is, sets of norms that are transmitted, with some modification, either vertically between generations of a given musical culture, or horizontally between peers of the same or different cultures. As music transforms through cultural evolution, so do the predictive models in our minds and the expectancy they give rise to, influenced by cultural exposure and individual experience. Thus, creativity and prediction are both fundamental and complementary to the transmission of cultural systems, including music, across generations and societies. For these reasons, prediction, creativity and cultural evolution were the central themes in a symposium we organised in 2022. The symposium aimed to study their interplay from an interdisciplinary perspective, guided by contemporary theories and methodologies. This special issue compiles research discussed during or inspired by that symposium, concluding with potential directions for the field of music cognition in that spirit.

跨文化的音乐创作可以说是创新与遵循既定规范的融合。这种融合使听众能够识别音乐中一系列创新的、令人惊奇的和实用的元素,同时也将它们与特定的传统或风格联系起来。有鉴于此,音乐创造力可以被看作是对共享元素和规则的新颖重组,其本身就能产生新的文化惯例。简单地说,未来的规范依赖于过去的知识和现在的行动;这一点对音乐和其他文化领域都是一样的。对于音乐创作和音乐聆听而言,贯穿这一时间过渡的一个关键过程就是预测。最近的研究结果表明,当我们聆听音乐时,我们的大脑会根据在特定文化背景下获得的先前知识不断产生预测。这些预测反过来又会影响我们对音乐的评价,形成一个持续的感知-行动循环。这种预测和校准预期的动态过程可能促成共同的音乐现实,即在特定音乐文化的世代之间,或在相同或不同文化的同龄人之间,经一定修改后横向传播的一系列规范。随着音乐在文化演变过程中的转变,我们头脑中的预测模型及其所产生的预期也会受到文化熏陶和个人经历的影响。因此,对于包括音乐在内的文化系统的跨代和跨社会传播而言,创造力和预测既是基础,又是互补。因此,预测、创造力和文化演变是我们在 2022 年组织的一次研讨会的核心主题。研讨会旨在以当代理论和方法为指导,从跨学科角度研究它们之间的相互作用。本特刊汇集了研讨会期间讨论的或受其启发的研究成果,并本着这一精神总结了音乐认知领域的潜在发展方向。
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引用次数: 0
Sequential Effects on Reaction Time Distributions: Commonalities and Differences Across Paradigms. 反应时间分布的序列效应:不同范式的共性与差异。
Q1 Psychology Pub Date : 2024-09-03 eCollection Date: 2024-01-01 DOI: 10.5334/joc.395
Anne Voormann, Jeff Miller

A common finding across numerous response time (RT) paradigms is that the mean RT in one trial depends strongly on the characteristics of the immediately preceding trial. Although such sequential effects have usually only been considered within each single paradigm in isolation from the others, there are important similarities across paradigms between the theoretical accounts of these effects. However, so far there has been no systematic comparison of sequential effects across paradigms. To investigate the possible relationships between sequential effects in different paradigms, we conducted an experiment examining sequential effects in visual search, two-choice RT, interference, and task-switching paradigms, using methods designed to maximize the similarity of stimuli and responses across paradigms. Detailed analyses of the observed RT distributions were carried out using both descriptive (e.g., ex-Gaussian) and process-oriented (e.g., diffusion models) methods. The results reveal significant empirical similarities and differences between the sequential effects observed across different paradigms, and in some cases even across different conditions within a single paradigm. Furthermore, the sequential effects are more similar to one another for some pairs of paradigms than for others. These results imply that some cognitive processes eliciting sequential effects are shared across paradigms while others seem to be paradigm-specific.

许多反应时间(RT)范式都有一个共同的发现,即一次试验的平均反应时间在很大程度上取决于紧接着的前一次试验的特征。虽然这种连续效应通常只在每个单一范式中单独考虑,与其他范式无关,但这些效应的理论解释在不同范式之间存在重要的相似性。然而,迄今为止还没有系统地比较过不同范式的序列效应。为了研究不同范式中顺序效应之间可能存在的关系,我们进行了一项实验,考察了视觉搜索、双选RT、干扰和任务切换范式中的顺序效应,实验方法旨在最大限度地提高不同范式中刺激和反应的相似性。使用描述性方法(如前高斯)和过程导向方法(如扩散模型)对观察到的 RT 分布进行了详细分析。结果表明,在不同范式中观察到的序列效应之间存在明显的经验相似性和差异,在某些情况下,甚至在同一范式的不同条件下也存在相似性和差异。此外,与其他范式相比,某些范式的序列效应更为相似。这些结果表明,引起序列效应的某些认知过程在不同范式中是共享的,而另一些认知过程似乎是特定范式的。
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引用次数: 0
Dissociating the Effects of Visual Similarity for Brand Names and Common Words. 区分品牌名称和普通词汇的视觉相似性效应
Q1 Psychology Pub Date : 2024-08-28 eCollection Date: 2024-01-01 DOI: 10.5334/joc.397
Francisco Rocabado, Melanie Labusch, Manuel Perea, Jon Andoni Duñabeitia

Abstractionist models of visual word recognition can easily accommodate the absence of visual similarity effects in misspelled common words (e.g., viotin vs. viocin) during lexical decision tasks. However, these models fail to account for the sizable effects of visual similarity observed in misspelled brand names (e.g., anazon produces longer responses and more errors than atazon). Importantly, this dissociation has only been reported in separate experiments. Thus, a crucial experiment is necessary to simultaneously examine the role of visual similarity with misspelled common words and brand names. In the current experiment, participants performed a lexical decision task using both brand names and common words. Nonword foils were created by replacing visually similar letters (e.g., anazon [baseword: amazon], anarilllo [amarillo, yellow]) or visually dissimilar letters (e.g., atazon, atarillo). Results showed sizeable visual letter similarity effects for misspelled brand names in response times and percent error. Critically, these effects were absent for misspelled common words. The pervasiveness of visual similarity effects for misspelled brand names, even in the presence of common words, challenges purely abstractionist accounts of visual word recognition. Instead, these findings support instance-based and weakly abstractionist theories, suggesting that episodic traces in the mental lexicon may retain perceptual information, particularly when words are repeatedly presented in a similar format.

视觉单词识别的抽象主义模型可以很容易地解释在词汇决策任务中,拼写错误的普通单词(如 viotin 与 viocin)不存在视觉相似性效应。然而,这些模型却无法解释在拼写错误的品牌名称中观察到的显著的视觉相似性效应(例如,anazon 比 atazon 产生更长的反应时间和更多的错误)。重要的是,这种分离只在单独的实验中被报道过。因此,有必要进行一项重要实验,以同时研究视觉相似性在拼写错误的普通词和品牌名称中的作用。在本实验中,受试者同时使用品牌名称和普通词语进行词汇决策任务。通过替换视觉上相似的字母(如 anazon [基词:amazon]、anarilllo [amarillo,黄色])或视觉上不相似的字母(如 atazon、atarillo)来创建非词衬托。结果表明,对于拼写错误的品牌名称,视觉字母相似性在反应时间和错误率上都有相当大的影响。重要的是,拼写错误的普通单词不存在这些效应。即使在有普通单词的情况下,拼写错误的品牌名称也普遍存在视觉相似性效应,这对纯粹抽象主义的视觉单词识别方法提出了挑战。相反,这些发现支持基于实例和弱抽象主义的理论,表明心理词典中的历时性痕迹可能会保留知觉信息,尤其是当单词以类似格式重复出现时。
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引用次数: 0
Letters, Words, Sentences, and Reading. 字母、单词、句子和阅读。
Q1 Psychology Pub Date : 2024-08-27 eCollection Date: 2024-01-01 DOI: 10.5334/joc.396
Jonathan Grainger

In this personal, and therefore highly selective, review article I summarize work performed in collaboration with numerous colleagues on how skilled adult readers perform identification tasks and speeded binary decision tasks involving single letters and visually presented words and sentences. The overarching aim is to highlight similarities in the processing performed at three key levels involved in written language comprehension (in languages that use an alphabetic script): letters, words, and sentences. The comparisons are made using behavioral data obtained with: i) speeded (response-limited) binary decision tasks; and ii) the effects of simultaneous surrounding context on letter and word identification using both data-limited (non-speeded) and response-limited procedures. I then propose a general framework that combines the three levels of processing, and that connects core processes at each level with the processing involved in tasks designed to reflect those core processes, and I end by suggesting possible avenues for future research with an aim to extend this general framework.

在这篇个人评论文章中,我总结了与许多同事合作完成的工作,这些工作涉及熟练的成年读者如何完成涉及单个字母和视觉呈现的单词和句子的识别任务和加速二元判定任务。文章的主要目的是突出书面语言理解(使用字母文字的语言)所涉及的三个关键层次(字母、单词和句子)的处理过程的相似性。比较使用的行为数据包括:i) 速度(反应受限)二元决策任务;ii) 同时使用数据受限(非速度)和反应受限程序的周围语境对字母和单词识别的影响。然后,我提出了一个总体框架,该框架结合了三个层次的处理过程,并将每个层次的核心过程与为反映这些核心过程而设计的任务中所涉及的处理过程联系起来。
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引用次数: 0
One Standard for All: Uniform Scale for Comparing Individuals and Groups in Hierarchical Bayesian Evidence Accumulation Modeling. 人人一个标准:在层次贝叶斯证据积累模型中比较个体和群体的统一尺度。
Q1 Psychology Pub Date : 2024-08-16 eCollection Date: 2024-01-01 DOI: 10.5334/joc.394
Rotem Berkovich, Nachshon Meiran

In recent years, a growing body of research uses Evidence Accumulation Models (EAMs) to study individual differences and group effects. This endeavor is challenging because fitting EAMs requires constraining one of the EAM parameters to be equal for all participants, which makes a strong and possibly unlikely assumption. Moreover, if this assumption is violated, differences or lack thereof may be wrongly found. To overcome this limitation, in this study, we introduce a new method that was originally suggested by van Maanen & Miletić (2021), which employs Bayesian hierarchical estimation. In this new method, we set the scale at the population level, thereby allowing for individual and group differences, which is realized by de facto fixing a population-level hyper-parameter through its priors. As proof of concept, we ran two successful parameter recovery studies using the Linear Ballistic Accumulation model. The results suggest that the new method can be reliably used to study individual and group differences using EAMs. We further show a case in which the new method reveals the true group differences whereas the classic method wrongly detects differences that are truly absent.

近年来,越来越多的研究使用证据积累模型(EAM)来研究个体差异和群体效应。这项工作极具挑战性,因为拟合 EAMs 需要限制 EAM 的一个参数对所有参与者都是相等的,这就提出了一个强有力的、可能不太可能实现的假设。此外,如果违反了这一假设,可能会错误地发现差异或缺乏差异。为了克服这一局限性,我们在本研究中引入了 van Maanen 和 Miletić(2021 年)最初提出的一种新方法,即贝叶斯分层估计法。在这种新方法中,我们在群体水平上设定尺度,从而允许个体和群体的差异,这是通过事实上固定群体水平超参数的先验来实现的。作为概念验证,我们使用线性弹道累积模型进行了两次成功的参数恢复研究。结果表明,这种新方法可以可靠地用于使用 EAM 研究个体和群体差异。我们进一步展示了一个案例,在该案例中,新方法揭示了真正的群体差异,而传统方法则错误地检测出了真正不存在的差异。
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引用次数: 0
The Web-based Open-access Reliable Decision on Synonyms (WORDS) English Vocabulary Test. 基于网络的开放式同义词可靠判定 (WORDS) 英语词汇量测试。
Q1 Psychology Pub Date : 2024-07-29 eCollection Date: 2024-01-01 DOI: 10.5334/joc.391
Po-Heng Chen, Rachael C Hulme, Lena M Blott, Jennifer M Rodd

A quick and reliable test of vocabulary knowledge is a vital component of many studies looking at a range of language processing skills. Recent proliferation of online (web-based) research has generated a growing need for reliable open-access vocabulary tests that can be administered online. This data report presents the newly developed 30-item Web-based Open-access Reliable Decision on Synonyms (WORDS) English Vocabulary Test. In Experiment 1, we tested 109 participants (age range: 18-69 years) on an initial set of 51 potential multiple-choice test items in which participants read a target word (e.g., ubiquitous) and selected a (near-)synonym (e.g., omnipresent) from among three semantically unrelated foils (e.g., interpersonal, catatonic, voluminous). We conducted an item response theory analysis of participants' accuracy data to select an optimal subset of 30 items to include in the final version of the test. In Experiment 2, we verified the reliability of this 30-item version in a different sample (N = 121; 18-79 years); reliability (internal consistency) was good (Cronbach's α = 0.82). We confirmed that, consistent with numerous previous studies, (1) responses were more accurate and quicker for more frequent compared to less frequent words, and (2) older adults showed greater vocabulary knowledge compared to younger adults. The WORDS test takes on average 4 minutes (5 minutes 40 seconds including consent/debrief) to complete. It can be freely accessed via Gorilla Open Materials (https://app.gorilla.sc/openmaterials/694887), allowing ease of use and for useful comparisons between data collected by different researchers.

快速可靠的词汇知识测试是许多语言处理技能研究的重要组成部分。近年来,在线(基于网络)研究日益增多,因此对可在线进行的可靠的开放式词汇测试的需求也越来越大。本数据报告介绍了新开发的 30 个项目的基于网络的同义词可靠决策(WORDS)英语词汇测试。在实验 1 中,我们对 109 名参与者(年龄范围:18-69 岁)进行了测试,测试的初始题目是 51 个潜在的多项选择测试项目,参与者阅读一个目标词(如:ubiquitous),并从三个语义无关的陪衬词(如:interpersonal、catatonic、voluminous)中选择一个(近)同义词(如:omnipresent)。我们对受试者的准确率数据进行了项目反应理论分析,以选出最佳的 30 个项目子集,并将其纳入测试的最终版本。在实验 2 中,我们在不同的样本(样本数 = 121;18-79 岁)中验证了这 30 个项目版本的可靠性;可靠性(内部一致性)良好(克朗巴赫系数 α = 0.82)。我们证实,与之前的大量研究结果一致,(1) 与词频较低的人相比,词频较高的人的回答更准确、更迅速;(2) 与年轻人相比,老年人的词汇知识更丰富。完成 WORDS 测试平均需要 4 分钟(包括同意/简述在内为 5 分 40 秒)。该测试可通过 Gorilla Open Materials (https://app.gorilla.sc/openmaterials/694887) 免费获取,使用方便,并可对不同研究人员收集的数据进行有用的比较。
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引用次数: 0
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Journal of Cognition
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