{"title":"Comments on \"Consanguineous Marriages in Pakistan\".","authors":"A Hakim","doi":"","DOIUrl":"","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":35921,"journal":{"name":"Pakistan Development Review","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1994-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"22039707","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1994-01-01DOI: 10.30541/V33I4IIPP.1123-1140
Z. Sathar, B. Raza
Already large, the population of South Asia is growing rapidly. Stable and high levels of fertility along with declining mortality have built a population in which approximately 45% of the total is younger than 15 years old. Women in South Asia comprise almost one-third of the world's female population. The average woman in the region marries young and begins to bear children shortly thereafter. While fertility has been declining in most of India and Bangladesh, and is already relatively low in Sri Lanka, levels of fertility have not declined dramatically in Nepal and Pakistan. Contraception is used at moderate levels in India and Bangladesh, but almost not at all in Nepal and Pakistan. Contraceptive use rates in the region, with the exception of Sri Lanka, remain far lower than the average of less developed countries which is 45%. Female life expectancy in South Asia does not exceed that of males by very much and is lower than that of males in Bangladesh, Maldives, and Nepal. High levels of maternal mortality and excess mortality among females during the postneonatal period and between ages 1 and 5 are principal reasons for the situation. Gender differentials in mortality in South Asia are explained followed by consideration of health, fertility, and women's status, and strategies needed to promote safe motherhood.
{"title":"Safe motherhood in South Asia: current status and strategies for change.","authors":"Z. Sathar, B. Raza","doi":"10.30541/V33I4IIPP.1123-1140","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.30541/V33I4IIPP.1123-1140","url":null,"abstract":"Already large, the population of South Asia is growing rapidly. Stable and high levels of fertility along with declining mortality have built a population in which approximately 45% of the total is younger than 15 years old. Women in South Asia comprise almost one-third of the world's female population. The average woman in the region marries young and begins to bear children shortly thereafter. While fertility has been declining in most of India and Bangladesh, and is already relatively low in Sri Lanka, levels of fertility have not declined dramatically in Nepal and Pakistan. Contraception is used at moderate levels in India and Bangladesh, but almost not at all in Nepal and Pakistan. Contraceptive use rates in the region, with the exception of Sri Lanka, remain far lower than the average of less developed countries which is 45%. Female life expectancy in South Asia does not exceed that of males by very much and is lower than that of males in Bangladesh, Maldives, and Nepal. High levels of maternal mortality and excess mortality among females during the postneonatal period and between ages 1 and 5 are principal reasons for the situation. Gender differentials in mortality in South Asia are explained followed by consideration of health, fertility, and women's status, and strategies needed to promote safe motherhood.","PeriodicalId":35921,"journal":{"name":"Pakistan Development Review","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1994-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69252633","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Comments on \"Factors Affecting Fertility in Pakistan\".","authors":"N Mahmood","doi":"","DOIUrl":"","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":35921,"journal":{"name":"Pakistan Development Review","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1994-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"22039603","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Contraceptive methods choice in Pakistan: determined or predetermined.","authors":"T Ahmed","doi":"","DOIUrl":"","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":35921,"journal":{"name":"Pakistan Development Review","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1994-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"22039608","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1994-01-01DOI: 10.30541/V33I4IIPP.685-709
A. Hakim
Data of the Pakistan Contraceptive Prevalence Survey of 1984-85 were used to determine whether there are any differentials in fertility levels by age at marriage, educational level, work status, region of residence (province), and place of residence (urban or rural) in Pakistan. Both bivariate and multivariate analyses examined the effects of these factors on fertility. The technique of Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA) was used to determine the net effect of each factor. Among the predictors, age at marriage was the most significant variable, followed by the husband's education, woman's education, husband's occupation, woman's work status, region, and place of residence. Among the demographic variables, age and age at marriage were the most important determinants of fertility. Among the socioeconomic variables, the educational level of both husband and wife were important determinants of cumulative fertility. Age at marriage was inversely related to fertility. The mean number of children ever born was 5.1 for those who married below age 16 vs. 4.1 for age at marriage 16-19, and 3.6 for 20-24. In the multivariate analysis the effect of age at marriage was the strongest as a predictor. Education had a negative effect on fertility. The mean number of children ever born to women with no education was 4.5; to women with primary education, 3.6; to women with secondary education, 3.2; and to women with tertiary education, 2.3. Women working as salaried employees had higher fertility (5.0) compared to women working in family business or at home (4.2). Women whose husbands worked as salaried employees had comparatively lower fertility than those whose husbands were working in their own business or in agriculture. The region of residence did not yield wide differentials. Furthermore, place of residence did not reveal any significant difference in fertility. The mean number of children was marginally higher among urban women (4.4) compared to their rural counterparts (4.2), indicating that the fertility transition has not started yet.
{"title":"Factors affecting fertility in Pakistan.","authors":"A. Hakim","doi":"10.30541/V33I4IIPP.685-709","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.30541/V33I4IIPP.685-709","url":null,"abstract":"Data of the Pakistan Contraceptive Prevalence Survey of 1984-85 were used to determine whether there are any differentials in fertility levels by age at marriage, educational level, work status, region of residence (province), and place of residence (urban or rural) in Pakistan. Both bivariate and multivariate analyses examined the effects of these factors on fertility. The technique of Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA) was used to determine the net effect of each factor. Among the predictors, age at marriage was the most significant variable, followed by the husband's education, woman's education, husband's occupation, woman's work status, region, and place of residence. Among the demographic variables, age and age at marriage were the most important determinants of fertility. Among the socioeconomic variables, the educational level of both husband and wife were important determinants of cumulative fertility. Age at marriage was inversely related to fertility. The mean number of children ever born was 5.1 for those who married below age 16 vs. 4.1 for age at marriage 16-19, and 3.6 for 20-24. In the multivariate analysis the effect of age at marriage was the strongest as a predictor. Education had a negative effect on fertility. The mean number of children ever born to women with no education was 4.5; to women with primary education, 3.6; to women with secondary education, 3.2; and to women with tertiary education, 2.3. Women working as salaried employees had higher fertility (5.0) compared to women working in family business or at home (4.2). Women whose husbands worked as salaried employees had comparatively lower fertility than those whose husbands were working in their own business or in agriculture. The region of residence did not yield wide differentials. Furthermore, place of residence did not reveal any significant difference in fertility. The mean number of children was marginally higher among urban women (4.4) compared to their rural counterparts (4.2), indicating that the fertility transition has not started yet.","PeriodicalId":35921,"journal":{"name":"Pakistan Development Review","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1994-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69252348","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1994-01-01DOI: 10.30541/V33I4IIPP.711-726
K. Manzoor
The author compares the per unit costs of different types of service outlets and contraceptive methods, and highlights methodological issues related to costing studies in his assessment of the most cost-effective way to provide family planning services from a wide range of service delivery modes and methods. Couple-year of protection and births averted data are analyzed from Sheikhupura district of Punjab for 1991-92. The low volume of activity has resulted in high per unit cost. Service outlet productivity or volume of activity can, however, be increased by increasing the variable or operational costs and without any change in the fixed staffing and capital costs up to an optimal limit to gain from economies of scale. The increase in the volume of activity by every existing service outlet will lower the per unit cost achieving economic efficiency and increase the number of births averted and couple-protection rate increasing the demographic impact. Strategic shifts can also be made between contraceptive mixes, but demand must be generated for family planning in order to ensure greater use of existing service outlets and increase the volume of activity to reduce per unit costs. Demand for family planning can be increased through an assortment of appropriate mass media venues, improving service quality, and a range of long-term initiatives including a push for female literacy, incentives/disincentives to have small families, tax benefits to individuals and corporations which donate time and/or other resources to family planning, and pricing contraceptives on the ability to pay.
{"title":"Cost-effectiveness of the family planning programme in Pakistan.","authors":"K. Manzoor","doi":"10.30541/V33I4IIPP.711-726","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.30541/V33I4IIPP.711-726","url":null,"abstract":"The author compares the per unit costs of different types of service outlets and contraceptive methods, and highlights methodological issues related to costing studies in his assessment of the most cost-effective way to provide family planning services from a wide range of service delivery modes and methods. Couple-year of protection and births averted data are analyzed from Sheikhupura district of Punjab for 1991-92. The low volume of activity has resulted in high per unit cost. Service outlet productivity or volume of activity can, however, be increased by increasing the variable or operational costs and without any change in the fixed staffing and capital costs up to an optimal limit to gain from economies of scale. The increase in the volume of activity by every existing service outlet will lower the per unit cost achieving economic efficiency and increase the number of births averted and couple-protection rate increasing the demographic impact. Strategic shifts can also be made between contraceptive mixes, but demand must be generated for family planning in order to ensure greater use of existing service outlets and increase the volume of activity to reduce per unit costs. Demand for family planning can be increased through an assortment of appropriate mass media venues, improving service quality, and a range of long-term initiatives including a push for female literacy, incentives/disincentives to have small families, tax benefits to individuals and corporations which donate time and/or other resources to family planning, and pricing contraceptives on the ability to pay.","PeriodicalId":35921,"journal":{"name":"Pakistan Development Review","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1994-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69252405","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1994-01-01DOI: 10.30541/V33I3PP.253-296
J. Behrman
Intra-household allocations are important in the determination of time use, human resource investments, and intra- and inter-generation of transfers in developing countries. During the 1980s through the mid-1990s there has been substantial progress in modeling intra-household allocations despite data limitations regarding the nature of the allocation of unobserved variables and the impact of unobserved heterogeneous endowments. The economic models of intra-household allocations include the pure parental altruism models with unified preferences, and within this the wealth model, which states that parents are concerned with each child's total wealth, but are not concerned with the sources of wealth. The next model is the separable earnings-transfers (SET) model, in which the parental welfare function is separable between their children's distribution of income from labor earnings and their children's distribution of income from physical and financial transfers received from their parents. The wealth model and the SET model have implications for identifying returns to schooling as well as implications for the interpretation of schooling as child quality. Models of qualified parental altruism include the rotten kid theorem, which states that variations in parental transfers to selfish children force such children to consider their parents' interests, as each beneficiary maximizes the total family income available to the altruistic benefactor. Under the strategic bequest or exchange model the parents influence the behavior of their children by holding wealth in bequeathable form. Collective models of household behavior, which focus on decisions between husbands and wives, include Nash bargaining models of intra-household allocations, which generalize the comparative statics of a unified preference constrained maximization. The Pareto-efficient collective household models assume that allocations are Pareto-efficient without assuming any explicit solution process.
{"title":"Intra-family distribution in developing countries.","authors":"J. Behrman","doi":"10.30541/V33I3PP.253-296","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.30541/V33I3PP.253-296","url":null,"abstract":"Intra-household allocations are important in the determination of time use, human resource investments, and intra- and inter-generation of transfers in developing countries. During the 1980s through the mid-1990s there has been substantial progress in modeling intra-household allocations despite data limitations regarding the nature of the allocation of unobserved variables and the impact of unobserved heterogeneous endowments. The economic models of intra-household allocations include the pure parental altruism models with unified preferences, and within this the wealth model, which states that parents are concerned with each child's total wealth, but are not concerned with the sources of wealth. The next model is the separable earnings-transfers (SET) model, in which the parental welfare function is separable between their children's distribution of income from labor earnings and their children's distribution of income from physical and financial transfers received from their parents. The wealth model and the SET model have implications for identifying returns to schooling as well as implications for the interpretation of schooling as child quality. Models of qualified parental altruism include the rotten kid theorem, which states that variations in parental transfers to selfish children force such children to consider their parents' interests, as each beneficiary maximizes the total family income available to the altruistic benefactor. Under the strategic bequest or exchange model the parents influence the behavior of their children by holding wealth in bequeathable form. Collective models of household behavior, which focus on decisions between husbands and wives, include Nash bargaining models of intra-household allocations, which generalize the comparative statics of a unified preference constrained maximization. The Pareto-efficient collective household models assume that allocations are Pareto-efficient without assuming any explicit solution process.","PeriodicalId":35921,"journal":{"name":"Pakistan Development Review","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1994-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69252615","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This paper analyzes the impact of internal migration on earnings within the human capital model framework. Since migrants constitute a non-random sample of population, the endogenous nature of migration decision warrants necessary correction for the selectivity bias in their earnings function. The Mincer-type earnings model is thus augmented to determine the extent of this bias. Besides estimating the standard Mincerian earnings model, the paper also attempts to verify the learn-as-you-go proposition by introducing migration duration variables in the earnings model. Based on the household level Population, Labor Force, and Migration (1979-80) survey data, the analysis yields the following important conclusions: (i) the data allowed a meaningful estimation of Mincerian earnings function for migrants and non-migrants; (ii) the level of schooling was one of the important determinants of the distribution of income both for migrants and nonmigrants--the four categorical variables of education were in general statistically significant with expected signs, implying that the hypothesis of a positive relationship between income and education was accepted; (iii) the rates of return to education improved systematically with higher levels of education, thus confirming the notion that education serves as a signalling device; (iv) the age-income profile was almost linear for migrants but showed concavity for nonmigrants; (v) the presence of sample-selection was observed for migrants; and (vi) even after controlling for the influence of personal characteristics, i.e., education and experience, the long-standing migrants earned relatively more at the destination than the more recent migrants.
{"title":"Internal migration, earnings, and the importance of self-selection.","authors":"A M Ahmed, I Sirageldin","doi":"","DOIUrl":"","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>This paper analyzes the impact of internal migration on earnings within the human capital model framework. Since migrants constitute a non-random sample of population, the endogenous nature of migration decision warrants necessary correction for the selectivity bias in their earnings function. The Mincer-type earnings model is thus augmented to determine the extent of this bias. Besides estimating the standard Mincerian earnings model, the paper also attempts to verify the learn-as-you-go proposition by introducing migration duration variables in the earnings model. Based on the household level Population, Labor Force, and Migration (1979-80) survey data, the analysis yields the following important conclusions: (i) the data allowed a meaningful estimation of Mincerian earnings function for migrants and non-migrants; (ii) the level of schooling was one of the important determinants of the distribution of income both for migrants and nonmigrants--the four categorical variables of education were in general statistically significant with expected signs, implying that the hypothesis of a positive relationship between income and education was accepted; (iii) the rates of return to education improved systematically with higher levels of education, thus confirming the notion that education serves as a signalling device; (iv) the age-income profile was almost linear for migrants but showed concavity for nonmigrants; (v) the presence of sample-selection was observed for migrants; and (vi) even after controlling for the influence of personal characteristics, i.e., education and experience, the long-standing migrants earned relatively more at the destination than the more recent migrants.</p>","PeriodicalId":35921,"journal":{"name":"Pakistan Development Review","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1994-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"22029016","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Health care determinants of child survival in Pakistan.","authors":"N Mahmood, M F Kiani","doi":"","DOIUrl":"","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":35921,"journal":{"name":"Pakistan Development Review","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1994-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"22039607","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Comments on \"Mother's Education and Utilisation of Health Care Services in Pakistan\".","authors":"S Hafeez","doi":"","DOIUrl":"","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":35921,"journal":{"name":"Pakistan Development Review","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1994-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"22039704","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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