This study postulates that contraceptive use in Pakistan is affected by the usual demographic factors as well as husband-wife communication, female autonomy, son preference, religious beliefs, and family planning service supply. Analysis is based on data obtained from the Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey of 1990-91. Findings indicate that 74% of women never talked in the past year with their husbands about family planning. Almost 60% believed that family size was "up to God." About 47% knew where to obtain contraception; only 20.4% had easy access to a source of supplies. Current use was 14% and ever use was 22.4%. Analysis is based on three basic models. Model 1 includes the control variables and son preference. Model 2 includes husband-wife communication, religious attitudes, and female autonomy. Model 3 includes the addition of family planning to model 2 variables. Urban residence increases the odds of contraceptive use considerably only in Model 1. The influence of urban residence in the other models is reduced. Husband's education is significant only in Models 1 and 2 and insignificant in Model 3 when the family planning variable is included. Increased women's age is also insignificant in Model 3. Of the supply factors in Model 3, knowledge of a source and easy access to a source were highly significant, while mass media exposure was not important. Knowledge of a source was the most important predictor. Model 3 explained 90% of use. Among urban women, lack of husband-wife communication and fatalistic beliefs reduce the log-odds of contraceptive use. For rural women, age and women's secondary education were key predictors. Findings confirm that demographic and socio-cultural factors affect contraceptive use in Pakistan. All the theorized variables exerted a strong influence on contraceptive use, which can be counteracted by improved supply and service strategies.
{"title":"Factors affecting contraceptive use in Pakistan.","authors":"N. Mahmood, K. Ringheim","doi":"10.30541/V35I1PP.1-22","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.30541/V35I1PP.1-22","url":null,"abstract":"This study postulates that contraceptive use in Pakistan is affected by the usual demographic factors as well as husband-wife communication, female autonomy, son preference, religious beliefs, and family planning service supply. Analysis is based on data obtained from the Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey of 1990-91. Findings indicate that 74% of women never talked in the past year with their husbands about family planning. Almost 60% believed that family size was \"up to God.\" About 47% knew where to obtain contraception; only 20.4% had easy access to a source of supplies. Current use was 14% and ever use was 22.4%. Analysis is based on three basic models. Model 1 includes the control variables and son preference. Model 2 includes husband-wife communication, religious attitudes, and female autonomy. Model 3 includes the addition of family planning to model 2 variables. Urban residence increases the odds of contraceptive use considerably only in Model 1. The influence of urban residence in the other models is reduced. Husband's education is significant only in Models 1 and 2 and insignificant in Model 3 when the family planning variable is included. Increased women's age is also insignificant in Model 3. Of the supply factors in Model 3, knowledge of a source and easy access to a source were highly significant, while mass media exposure was not important. Knowledge of a source was the most important predictor. Model 3 explained 90% of use. Among urban women, lack of husband-wife communication and fatalistic beliefs reduce the log-odds of contraceptive use. For rural women, age and women's secondary education were key predictors. Findings confirm that demographic and socio-cultural factors affect contraceptive use in Pakistan. All the theorized variables exerted a strong influence on contraceptive use, which can be counteracted by improved supply and service strategies.","PeriodicalId":35921,"journal":{"name":"Pakistan Development Review","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1996-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69253182","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Gender differentials in the cost of primary education: a study of Pakistan.","authors":"Z H Ismail","doi":"","DOIUrl":"","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":35921,"journal":{"name":"Pakistan Development Review","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1996-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"22019967","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1996-01-01DOI: 10.30541/V35I4IIPP.719-731
G. M. Zahid
"The paper examines the mother's health-seeking behaviour and childhood mortality in Pakistan. This is based on the 1990-91 Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey (PDHS).... It was found that neonatal, infant, and child mortality rate is the highest among children of mothers aged less than 20 years. Infant and child mortality rate is likewise higher among first and higher order births than among births of second or third order. It was further found that mortality declines as the length of the birth interval increases. The results reveal that the education of mother has significant effect on the neonatal, infant and child survival.... Health care factors such as antenatal care, place of delivery, assistance at delivery and immunisation also influenced neonatal, infant and child mortality."
{"title":"Mother's health-seeking behaviour and childhood mortality in Pakistan.","authors":"G. M. Zahid","doi":"10.30541/V35I4IIPP.719-731","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.30541/V35I4IIPP.719-731","url":null,"abstract":"\"The paper examines the mother's health-seeking behaviour and childhood mortality in Pakistan. This is based on the 1990-91 Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey (PDHS).... It was found that neonatal, infant, and child mortality rate is the highest among children of mothers aged less than 20 years. Infant and child mortality rate is likewise higher among first and higher order births than among births of second or third order. It was further found that mortality declines as the length of the birth interval increases. The results reveal that the education of mother has significant effect on the neonatal, infant and child survival.... Health care factors such as antenatal care, place of delivery, assistance at delivery and immunisation also influenced neonatal, infant and child mortality.\"","PeriodicalId":35921,"journal":{"name":"Pakistan Development Review","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1996-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69253513","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1996-01-01DOI: 10.30541/V35I2PP.145-170
M. Zafar
Quantitative and qualitative techniques are used to explore respondents' views on contraceptive and fertility behavior in an attempt to determine the extent to which socioeconomic, cultural, and attitudinal variables influence the fertility decision-making process. 1100 female contraceptive users and non-users were sampled from Lahore and Faisalabad. The women were age 25 years and older, with at least 2 living children, and living with their husbands. Pregnant women were not included in the study. Principle Component Analysis (PCA) is used to identify meaningful underlying variables and reduce the multidimensionality of variables, while the chi-square test is used to explore the relationships between the predictor and dependent variables. Multiple linear regression is also used to establish the relative importance of each predictor variable. The comprehensive analysis found that preferences for smaller families and contraceptive use were consistently associated with modern attitudes and behavior with regard to the husband-wife relationship. Family income, husband's occupation, child mortality, and age at marriage did not help to explain reproductive behavior. Cultural setting and tradition influence to an important extent reproductive behavior independent of development in economic realities. Women's status needs to be improved in order to attain demographic-developmental goals.
{"title":"Husband-wife roles as a correlate of contraceptive and fertility behaviour.","authors":"M. Zafar","doi":"10.30541/V35I2PP.145-170","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.30541/V35I2PP.145-170","url":null,"abstract":"Quantitative and qualitative techniques are used to explore respondents' views on contraceptive and fertility behavior in an attempt to determine the extent to which socioeconomic, cultural, and attitudinal variables influence the fertility decision-making process. 1100 female contraceptive users and non-users were sampled from Lahore and Faisalabad. The women were age 25 years and older, with at least 2 living children, and living with their husbands. Pregnant women were not included in the study. Principle Component Analysis (PCA) is used to identify meaningful underlying variables and reduce the multidimensionality of variables, while the chi-square test is used to explore the relationships between the predictor and dependent variables. Multiple linear regression is also used to establish the relative importance of each predictor variable. The comprehensive analysis found that preferences for smaller families and contraceptive use were consistently associated with modern attitudes and behavior with regard to the husband-wife relationship. Family income, husband's occupation, child mortality, and age at marriage did not help to explain reproductive behavior. Cultural setting and tradition influence to an important extent reproductive behavior independent of development in economic realities. Women's status needs to be improved in order to attain demographic-developmental goals.","PeriodicalId":35921,"journal":{"name":"Pakistan Development Review","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1996-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69253269","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1996-01-01DOI: 10.30541/V35I4IIPP.733-744
A. Muhammad
This study examined differences in residence, marriage age, and education among 6 language groups (Balochi-Brohi, Urdu, Siraiki, Punjabi, Sindhi, and Pushto) in Pakistan. Ethnic differences were reported for fertility preferences and family planning attitudes, knowledge, and practices. Data were obtained from the 1990-91 Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey among 6582 eligible ever-married women aged 15-30 and 31-49 years. 95% of Urdu and 50% of Balochi-Brohi speakers lived in urban areas. 73.4% of Siraiki speakers lived in rural areas. Urdu speakers were the best educated, with 31% having a secondary or higher education. Lack of formal education was 46.5% among Urdu, 68.4% among Punjabi, and 88% among Pushto women. Sindhi speakers had the lowest marriage age; the median age at first marriage was 15 years. Marriages at ages younger than 17 years were common among Balochi-Brohi-, Pushto-, and Siraiki-speaking women. Later age of marriage was more common among Urdu and Punjabi women. Fertility was highest among younger women speaking Balochi-Brohi, followed by those speaking Urdu. Fertility was lowest among younger Siraiki-speaking women. Among older women, fertility was highest among Siraiki speakers, followed by Balochi-Brohi and Pushto speakers. It was lowest among older Urdu-speaking women. 80% of Balochi-Brohi- and 76% of Siraiki-speaking women had no ideal family size. Over 25% of Urdu and Punjabi speakers desired 4 children. "Up to God" responses were strongest among Balochi-Brohi speakers, followed by Siraiki and Sindhi speakers. Current modern method use was 22.1 among Urdu speakers, 12.7% among those speaking a language other than the 6 groups studied, 11.7% among Punjabi speakers, 8.3% among Pushto speakers, 4.9% among Siraiki speakers, 3.4% among Sindhi speakers, and 3.3% among Balochi-Brohi speakers.
{"title":"Ethnic fertility differentials in Pakistan.","authors":"A. Muhammad","doi":"10.30541/V35I4IIPP.733-744","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.30541/V35I4IIPP.733-744","url":null,"abstract":"This study examined differences in residence, marriage age, and education among 6 language groups (Balochi-Brohi, Urdu, Siraiki, Punjabi, Sindhi, and Pushto) in Pakistan. Ethnic differences were reported for fertility preferences and family planning attitudes, knowledge, and practices. Data were obtained from the 1990-91 Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey among 6582 eligible ever-married women aged 15-30 and 31-49 years. 95% of Urdu and 50% of Balochi-Brohi speakers lived in urban areas. 73.4% of Siraiki speakers lived in rural areas. Urdu speakers were the best educated, with 31% having a secondary or higher education. Lack of formal education was 46.5% among Urdu, 68.4% among Punjabi, and 88% among Pushto women. Sindhi speakers had the lowest marriage age; the median age at first marriage was 15 years. Marriages at ages younger than 17 years were common among Balochi-Brohi-, Pushto-, and Siraiki-speaking women. Later age of marriage was more common among Urdu and Punjabi women. Fertility was highest among younger women speaking Balochi-Brohi, followed by those speaking Urdu. Fertility was lowest among younger Siraiki-speaking women. Among older women, fertility was highest among Siraiki speakers, followed by Balochi-Brohi and Pushto speakers. It was lowest among older Urdu-speaking women. 80% of Balochi-Brohi- and 76% of Siraiki-speaking women had no ideal family size. Over 25% of Urdu and Punjabi speakers desired 4 children. \"Up to God\" responses were strongest among Balochi-Brohi speakers, followed by Siraiki and Sindhi speakers. Current modern method use was 22.1 among Urdu speakers, 12.7% among those speaking a language other than the 6 groups studied, 11.7% among Punjabi speakers, 8.3% among Pushto speakers, 4.9% among Siraiki speakers, 3.4% among Sindhi speakers, and 3.3% among Balochi-Brohi speakers.","PeriodicalId":35921,"journal":{"name":"Pakistan Development Review","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1996-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69253547","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1996-01-01DOI: 10.30541/V35I4IIPP.443-465
M. Qadeer
This paper aims at analyzing and assessing the evolution and outcomes of Pakistan's urban policies during 1947-97. One-third of Pakistan's population live in urban areas, and the level of urbanization increased from 18% in 1951 to 32% in 1991. The rapid rate of urbanization has produced two megacities, Karachi with a population of 8-10 million and Lahore with a population of about 5 million, and 6 other cities with populations of 1 million or more. Pakistan is one of the pioneering countries in implementing physical planning and planned housing; this is reflected in its urban policies as constituted by the Five-Year Plan and national development budgets. The programs through which the policies were implemented are divided into three phases. Phase 1 (1947-70) involved the resettlement of refugees and laying of the institutional framework; core housing schemes (consisting of 1- to 2-room quarters) were the key element of the urban strategy in this period. Phase 2 (1971-78) policies were guided by the promise of mass housing, particularly for the working and lower classes. At this time, too, a set of squatter settlements known as Katchi Abadis emerged, and international organizations started funding Pakistan's urban development programs. Phase 3 (1980-95) saw the steady "privatization" of the housing and land markets and improved housing conditions, while urban policy continued to concentrate on public works, plots and construction. Despite the improvements, urban crises persist, and policies are shifting towards more complex issues of quality and the provision of new collective goods. In general, the achievements of Pakistan's urban policies have outweighed its failures, as both the rich and the poor have benefitted from them.
{"title":"An assessment of Pakistan's urban policies 1947-1997.","authors":"M. Qadeer","doi":"10.30541/V35I4IIPP.443-465","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.30541/V35I4IIPP.443-465","url":null,"abstract":"This paper aims at analyzing and assessing the evolution and outcomes of Pakistan's urban policies during 1947-97. One-third of Pakistan's population live in urban areas, and the level of urbanization increased from 18% in 1951 to 32% in 1991. The rapid rate of urbanization has produced two megacities, Karachi with a population of 8-10 million and Lahore with a population of about 5 million, and 6 other cities with populations of 1 million or more. Pakistan is one of the pioneering countries in implementing physical planning and planned housing; this is reflected in its urban policies as constituted by the Five-Year Plan and national development budgets. The programs through which the policies were implemented are divided into three phases. Phase 1 (1947-70) involved the resettlement of refugees and laying of the institutional framework; core housing schemes (consisting of 1- to 2-room quarters) were the key element of the urban strategy in this period. Phase 2 (1971-78) policies were guided by the promise of mass housing, particularly for the working and lower classes. At this time, too, a set of squatter settlements known as Katchi Abadis emerged, and international organizations started funding Pakistan's urban development programs. Phase 3 (1980-95) saw the steady \"privatization\" of the housing and land markets and improved housing conditions, while urban policy continued to concentrate on public works, plots and construction. Despite the improvements, urban crises persist, and policies are shifting towards more complex issues of quality and the provision of new collective goods. In general, the achievements of Pakistan's urban policies have outweighed its failures, as both the rich and the poor have benefitted from them.","PeriodicalId":35921,"journal":{"name":"Pakistan Development Review","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1996-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69253387","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"An assessment of Pakistan's urban policies 1947-1997.","authors":"M A Qadeer","doi":"","DOIUrl":"","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":35921,"journal":{"name":"Pakistan Development Review","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1996-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"22019962","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Ethnic fertility differentials in Pakistan.","authors":"A Muhammad","doi":"","DOIUrl":"","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":35921,"journal":{"name":"Pakistan Development Review","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1996-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"22019964","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 1996-01-01DOI: 10.30541/V35I4IIPP.705-717
S. S. Hashmi
This study examines the hypothesis that shy, silent users of contraceptives in Pakistan underreport contraceptive usage. Data were obtained from the 1984-85 and 1994-95 Contraceptive Prevalence Surveys, the 1990-91 Demographic and Health Survey, and a Punjab 1993 survey. The data were reorganized to indicate the number of women who were fecund but did not have a birth within the preceding 5 years before the surveys. 698,864 women in 1984-85 did not have children and did not report contraceptive use, or 5.9% of total respondents. If these women were added to the contraceptive prevalence rate (CPR), it would rise from 7.6% to 13.5%. The higher CPR is consistent with the observed total fertility rate of 5.95. Shy or silent users were 11.9% in 1990-91 and 11.3% in 1994-95. The revised CPRs are 23.7% and 29.1%, respectively. In 1993, a follow-up survey among non-users in Punjab province showed that CPR increased from 13% in 1990-91 to 18% in 1993. Withdrawal was the most widely used method, followed by the condom and female sterilization. The increase in CPR is attributed to more open reporting among shy or silent users. Revised CPRs that include shy or silent users were consistent with total fertility rates in all 3 nationally representative surveys. Typically shy or silent users were older by about 2.3 years than current users, but had similarly aged husbands. Shy or silent users had longer duration of marriage, greater illiteracy, and less contraceptive knowledge about methods and sources. Shy or silent women had lower children ever born rates than current users.
{"title":"Shy / silent users of contraceptives in Pakistan.","authors":"S. S. Hashmi","doi":"10.30541/V35I4IIPP.705-717","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.30541/V35I4IIPP.705-717","url":null,"abstract":"This study examines the hypothesis that shy, silent users of contraceptives in Pakistan underreport contraceptive usage. Data were obtained from the 1984-85 and 1994-95 Contraceptive Prevalence Surveys, the 1990-91 Demographic and Health Survey, and a Punjab 1993 survey. The data were reorganized to indicate the number of women who were fecund but did not have a birth within the preceding 5 years before the surveys. 698,864 women in 1984-85 did not have children and did not report contraceptive use, or 5.9% of total respondents. If these women were added to the contraceptive prevalence rate (CPR), it would rise from 7.6% to 13.5%. The higher CPR is consistent with the observed total fertility rate of 5.95. Shy or silent users were 11.9% in 1990-91 and 11.3% in 1994-95. The revised CPRs are 23.7% and 29.1%, respectively. In 1993, a follow-up survey among non-users in Punjab province showed that CPR increased from 13% in 1990-91 to 18% in 1993. Withdrawal was the most widely used method, followed by the condom and female sterilization. The increase in CPR is attributed to more open reporting among shy or silent users. Revised CPRs that include shy or silent users were consistent with total fertility rates in all 3 nationally representative surveys. Typically shy or silent users were older by about 2.3 years than current users, but had similarly aged husbands. Shy or silent users had longer duration of marriage, greater illiteracy, and less contraceptive knowledge about methods and sources. Shy or silent women had lower children ever born rates than current users.","PeriodicalId":35921,"journal":{"name":"Pakistan Development Review","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1996-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"69253413","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"The impact of socio-economic factors on fertility behaviour: a cross-country analysis.","authors":"R Siddiqui","doi":"","DOIUrl":"","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":35921,"journal":{"name":"Pakistan Development Review","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"1996-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"22029269","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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