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Multi-Strategical Thermal Management Approach for Lithium-Ion Batteries: Combining Forced Convection, Mist Cooling, Air Flow Improvisers and Additives 锂离子电池的多策略热管理方法:结合强制对流、喷雾冷却、气流改进器和添加剂
IF 2.3 Q2 Engineering Pub Date : 2024-05-11 DOI: 10.3390/wevj15050213
Anikrishnan Mohanan, K. Chidambaram
Maintaining the peak temperature of a battery within limits is a mandate for the safer operation of electric vehicles. In two-wheeler electric vehicles, the options available for the battery thermal management system are minuscule due to the restrictions imposed by factors like weight, cost, availability, performance, and load. In this study, a multi-strategical cooling approach of forced convection and mist cooling over a single-cell 21,700 lithium-ion battery working under the condition of 4C is proposed. The chosen levels for air velocities (10, 15, 20 and 25 m/s) imitate real-world riding conditions, and for mist cooling implementation, injection pressure with three levels (3, 7 and 14 bar) is considered. The ANSYS fluent simulation is carried out using the volume of fluid in the discrete phase modelling transition using water mist as a working fluid. Initial breakup is considered for more accurate calculations. The battery’s state of health (SOH) is determined using PYTHON by adopting the Newton–Raphson estimation. The maximum temperature reduction potential by employing an airflow improviser (AFI) and additives (Tween 80, 1-heptanol, APG0810, Tween 20 and FS3100) is also explored. The simulation results revealed that an additional reduction of about 11% was possible by incorporating additives and AFI in the multi-strategical approach. The corresponding SOH improvement was about 2%. When the electric two-wheeler operated under 4C, the optimal condition (Max. SOH and Min. peak cell temp.) was achieved at an air velocity of 25 m/s, injection pressure of 7 bar with AFI and 3% (by wt.) Tween 80 and a 0.1% deformer.
将电池的峰值温度保持在一定范围内,是电动汽车更安全运行的必要条件。在两轮电动车中,由于重量、成本、可用性、性能和负载等因素的限制,电池热管理系统的可选项非常少。在这项研究中,提出了一种在 4C 条件下工作的单芯 21,700 锂离子电池强制对流和雾化冷却的多策略冷却方法。所选的气流速度水平(10、15、20 和 25 m/s)模仿了真实世界的骑行条件,在实施雾冷却时,考虑了三个水平的喷射压力(3、7 和 14 巴)。ANSYS fluent 仿真使用离散相建模转换中的流体体积,将水雾作为工作流体。为使计算更加精确,考虑了初始破裂。采用牛顿-拉斐逊估算法,使用PYTHON确定电池的健康状态(SOH)。此外,还探讨了采用气流改进器(AFI)和添加剂(吐温 80、1-庚醇、APG0810、吐温 20 和 FS3100)降低温度的最大潜力。模拟结果表明,在多策略方法中加入添加剂和 AFI 后,可额外减少约 11%。相应的 SOH 提高了约 2%。当电动两轮车在 4C 下运行时,在气流速度为 25 米/秒、喷射压力为 7 巴、添加 AFI 和 3%(按重量计)吐温 80 以及 0.1% 变形剂的条件下,达到了最佳状态(最大 SOH 和最低峰值电池温度)。
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引用次数: 0
Hardware Implementation of a Resilient Energy Management System for Networked Microgrids 网络化微电网弹性能源管理系统的硬件实现
IF 2.3 Q2 Engineering Pub Date : 2024-05-10 DOI: 10.3390/wevj15050209
Hossam Hussein, S. S. H. Rafin, Mahmoud S. Abdelrahman, Osama A. Mohammed
A networked microgrid is composed of multiple nearby microgrids linked together to gain additional flexibility for resilient operations. Networked microgrids collaborate to prevent power shortages in microgrid clusters by sharing critical renewable and energy storage resources. However, controlling the local resources of each microgrid, including the energy storage systems’ charging and discharging, maintaining the DC bus voltage, and even overseeing the power shared by multiple microgrids, is challenging. Therefore, a microgrid control technique and distributed energy management are used cooperatively in this study to handle the shared power between a system of networked microgrids incorporating photovoltaics and battery energy storage systems. Numerical simulation results from a networked microgrid system verify the accuracy and soundness of the suggested distributed energy management under several operating conditions, including renewable uncertainties and sequential load variations in different zones. The applicability of the suggested technique is confirmed by hardware implementation, and several operational scenarios further evaluate the proposed system on a practical two-microgrid system located in the Florida International University (FIU) testbed.
联网微电网由多个邻近的微电网组成,这些微电网相互连接在一起,以获得额外的灵活性,实现弹性运行。联网微电网通过共享关键的可再生能源和储能资源,协作防止微电网集群出现电力短缺。然而,控制每个微电网的本地资源,包括储能系统的充放电、维持直流母线电压,甚至监督多个微电网共享的电力,都是一项挑战。因此,本研究采用微电网控制技术和分布式能源管理相结合的方法,来处理包含光伏发电和电池储能系统的联网微电网系统之间的电力共享问题。联网微电网系统的数值模拟结果验证了所建议的分布式能源管理在多种运行条件下的准确性和合理性,包括可再生能源的不确定性和不同区域的连续负荷变化。建议技术的适用性通过硬件实施得到了证实,在佛罗里达国际大学(FIU)测试平台上的一个实用双微网系统中,几个运行场景对建议系统进行了进一步评估。
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引用次数: 0
A Multi-Sensor 3D Detection Method for Small Objects 小物体的多传感器 3D 检测方法
IF 2.3 Q2 Engineering Pub Date : 2024-05-10 DOI: 10.3390/wevj15050210
Yuekun Zhao, Suyun Luo, Xiaoci Huang, Dan Wei
In response to the limited accuracy of current three-dimensional (3D) object detection algorithms for small objects, this paper presents a multi-sensor 3D small object detection method based on LiDAR and a camera. Firstly, the LiDAR point cloud is projected onto the image plane to obtain a depth image. Subsequently, we propose a cascaded image fusion module comprising multi-level pooling layers and multi-level convolution layers. This module extracts features from both the camera image and the depth image, addressing the issue of insufficient depth information in the image feature. Considering the non-uniform distribution characteristics of the LiDAR point cloud, we introduce a multi-scale voxel fusion module composed of three sets of VFE (voxel feature encoder) layers. This module partitions the point cloud into grids of different sizes to improve detection ability for small objects. Finally, the multi-level fused point features are associated with the corresponding scale’s initial voxel features to obtain the fused multi-scale voxel features, and the final detection results are obtained based on this feature. To evaluate the effectiveness of this method, experiments are conducted on the KITTI dataset, achieving a 3D AP (average precision) of 73.81% for the hard level of cars and 48.03% for the hard level of persons. The experimental results demonstrate that this method can effectively achieve 3D detection of small objects.
针对目前三维(3D)物体检测算法对小物体检测精度有限的问题,本文提出了一种基于激光雷达和摄像头的多传感器三维小物体检测方法。首先,将激光雷达点云投影到图像平面上以获得深度图像。随后,我们提出了一个由多级池化层和多级卷积层组成的级联图像融合模块。该模块同时从相机图像和深度图像中提取特征,解决了图像特征中深度信息不足的问题。考虑到激光雷达点云的非均匀分布特性,我们引入了由三组 VFE(体素特征编码器)层组成的多尺度体素融合模块。该模块将点云划分为不同大小的网格,以提高对小物体的检测能力。最后,将多级融合点特征与相应尺度的初始体素特征进行关联,得到融合后的多尺度体素特征,并根据该特征得到最终的检测结果。为了评估该方法的有效性,我们在 KITTI 数据集上进行了实验,结果表明,在汽车的硬水平和人的硬水平上,三维 AP(平均精度)分别达到了 73.81% 和 48.03%。实验结果表明,该方法可以有效实现小型物体的三维检测。
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引用次数: 0
Application of Digital Twin in Electric Vehicle Powertrain: A Review 数字孪生系统在电动汽车动力系统中的应用:综述
IF 2.3 Q2 Engineering Pub Date : 2024-05-10 DOI: 10.3390/wevj15050208
Xiaokang Li, Wenxu Niu, Haobin Tian
Digital Twin (DT) is widely regarded as a highly promising technology with the potential to revolutionize various industries, making it a key trend in the Industry 4.0 era. In a cost-effective and risk-free setting, digital twins facilitate the interaction and merging of the physical and informational realms. The application of digital twins spans across different sectors, including aerospace, healthcare, smart manufacturing, and smart cities. As electric vehicles have experienced rapid growth, there is a growing demand for the development of innovative technologies. One potential area for digital twins application is within the automotive sector. The powertrain system of electric vehicles (EVs) consists of three parts, power source, power electronic system, and electric motor, which are considered as the core components of electric vehicles. The focus of this paper is to conduct a methodical review regarding the use of digital twins in the powertrain of electric vehicles (EVs). While reviewing the development of digital twin technology, its main application scenarios and its use in electric vehicle powertrains are analysed. Finally, the digital twins currently encounter several challenges that need to be addressed, and so the future development of their application to electric vehicles are summarized.
数字孪生(DT)被广泛认为是一种极具潜力的技术,有可能给各行各业带来革命性的变化,成为工业 4.0 时代的一个重要趋势。在低成本、无风险的环境下,数字孪生促进了物理和信息领域的互动与融合。数字孪生的应用横跨不同领域,包括航空航天、医疗保健、智能制造和智慧城市。随着电动汽车的快速发展,对创新技术的开发需求日益增长。数字孪生的一个潜在应用领域是汽车行业。电动汽车(EV)的动力总成系统由动力源、电力电子系统和电机三部分组成,被视为电动汽车的核心部件。本文的重点是对数字孪生技术在电动汽车(EV)动力总成中的应用进行系统回顾。在回顾数字孪生技术发展的同时,分析了其主要应用场景及其在电动汽车动力系统中的应用。最后,总结了数字孪生目前遇到的几个需要解决的挑战,以及其在电动汽车中应用的未来发展。
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引用次数: 0
Medium- and Long-Term Electric Vehicle Ownership Forecasting for Urban Residents 城市居民电动汽车中长期保有量预测
IF 2.3 Q2 Engineering Pub Date : 2024-05-10 DOI: 10.3390/wevj15050212
Zhao-Xia Xiao, Jiang-Wei Jia, Xiang-Yu Liu, Hong-Kun Bai, Qiu-Yan Li, Yuan-Peng Hua
With the rapid development of electric vehicles (EVs) in Chinese cities, accurately forecasting the number of EVs used by urban residents in the next five years and more long term is beneficial for the government to adjust industrial policies of EVs, guide the rational planning of urban charging facilities and supporting distribution network, and achieve the rational and orderly development of the EV industry. The paper considers the advantages of using the grey GM(1,1) prediction model to predict the short-term ownership of EVs by urban residents. Then, by forecasting the number of EV users in a certain city in the future and predicting the number of private vehicles in the future, the boundary conditions for long-term year ownership of EVs by residents are determined. Combined with historical data and short-term forecast data generated by the grey prediction model, the model parameters that include the innovation coefficient and imitation coefficient of the Bass model are trained using a genetic algorithm. Finally, the Bass model is used for medium- to long-term ownership forecasting from 2023 to 2040. The prediction error for the target year is provided. The simulation results indicate that the ownership of resident EVs in this city will experience rapid growth in the next five years.
随着中国城市电动汽车(EV)的快速发展,准确预测未来五年乃至更长时期内城市居民使用电动汽车的数量,有利于政府调整电动汽车产业政策,指导城市充电设施和配套配送网络的合理规划,实现电动汽车产业的合理有序发展。本文认为,利用灰色 GM(1,1)预测模型预测城市居民短期内电动汽车保有量具有一定的优势。然后,通过对某城市未来电动汽车用户数量的预测和对未来私家车数量的预测,确定居民电动汽车长期年拥有量的边界条件。结合灰色预测模型生成的历史数据和短期预测数据,利用遗传算法训练 Bass 模型的创新系数和模仿系数等模型参数。最后,巴斯模型被用于 2023 年至 2040 年的中长期所有权预测。提供了目标年份的预测误差。模拟结果表明,该市居民电动汽车保有量将在未来五年内快速增长。
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引用次数: 0
Driving Profiles of Light Commercial Vehicles of Craftsmen and the Potential of Battery Electric Vehicles When Charging on Company Premises 技工驾驶轻型商用车的情况以及电池电动车在公司场所充电的潜力
IF 2.3 Q2 Engineering Pub Date : 2024-05-10 DOI: 10.3390/wevj15050211
Oliver Heilmann, Britta Bocho, Alexander Frieß, Sven Cortès, Ulrich Schrade, André Casal Kulzer, Michael Schlick
This paper examines the extent to which it is possible to replace conventional light commercial vehicles in the heating, ventilation and air conditioning and plumbing trade with battery electric vehicles with an unchanged usage profile. GPS trackers are used to record the position data of 22 craft vehicles with combustion engines from eleven companies over the duration of one working week. Within this paper, various assumptions (battery capacity and average consumption) are made for battery electric vehicles and the charging power on the company premises. The potential of battery electric vehicles is evaluated based on the assumption that they are charged only on company premises. Using the collected data and the assumptions made, theoretical state of charge curves are calculated for the vehicles. The driving profiles of the individual vehicles differ greatly, and the suitability of battery electric vehicles should be considered individually. Battery capacity, vehicle energy consumption and charging power at the company have a substantial influence on the suitability of battery electric vehicles. Furthermore, there are differences between vehicles that can charge on the company premises at night and those that cannot or can only do so on some days.
本文探讨了在使用情况不变的情况下,用电池电动车取代供暖、通风、空调和管道行业的传统轻型商用车辆的可能性。本文使用 GPS 跟踪器记录了 11 家公司的 22 辆内燃机汽车在一个工作周内的位置数据。本文对电池电动车和公司场所的充电功率做了各种假设(电池容量和平均消耗量)。假定电池电动汽车只在公司场所充电,以此评估电池电动汽车的潜力。利用收集的数据和所做的假设,计算出车辆的理论充电状态曲线。每辆车的行驶情况差异很大,因此应单独考虑电池电动汽车的适用性。电池容量、车辆能耗和公司的充电功率对电池电动汽车的适用性有很大影响。此外,可以在夜间在公司所在地充电的车辆与不能或只能在某些日子充电的车辆之间也存在差异。
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引用次数: 0
Suppression of Initial Charging Torque for Electric Drive-Reconfigured On-Board Charger 抑制电动驱动器重新配置的车载充电器的初始充电扭矩
IF 2.3 Q2 Engineering Pub Date : 2024-05-09 DOI: 10.3390/wevj15050207
Yang Xiao, Kangwei Wang, Zhi Geng, K. Ni, Mingdi Fan, Yong Yang
This paper presents a new electric drive-reconfigured on-board charger and initial electromagnetic torque suppression method. This proposed reconfigured on-board charger does not need many components added to the original electric drive system: only a connector is needed, which is easy to add. Specifically, the inverter for propulsion is reconfigured as a buck chopper and a conduction path to match the reconfigured windings. Two of the machine phase windings serve as inductors, while the third phase winding is reutilized as a common-mode inductor. In addition, the initial charging torque is generated at the outset of the charging process, which may cause an instant shock or even rotational movement. In order to prevent vehicle movement, the reason for the charging torque and suppression method were analyzed. Further, predictive control of the model based on mutual inductance analysis was adopted, where the charging torque was directly used as a control object in the cost function. Finally, experimental performances were applied to verify the proposed reconfigured on-board charger under constant current and constant voltage charging.
本文介绍了一种新的电动驱动重构车载充电器和初始电磁扭矩抑制方法。所提出的这种重新配置的车载充电器不需要在原电力驱动系统中添加许多组件:只需要一个连接器,这很容易添加。具体来说,用于推进的逆变器被重新配置为降压斩波器和传导路径,以匹配重新配置的绕组。其中两个机器相绕组用作电感器,而第三个相绕组则作为共模电感器重新利用。此外,充电过程开始时会产生初始充电扭矩,这可能会造成瞬间冲击甚至旋转运动。为了防止车辆移动,分析了充电扭矩产生的原因和抑制方法。此外,还采用了基于互感分析的模型预测控制,在成本函数中直接将充电扭矩作为控制对象。最后,在恒流和恒压充电条件下,应用实验性能验证了所提出的重构车载充电器。
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引用次数: 0
Modeling an Investment Framework for BMTA Electric Bus Fleet Development 建立 BMTA 电动巴士车队发展投资框架模型
IF 2.3 Q2 Engineering Pub Date : 2024-05-09 DOI: 10.3390/wevj15050206
Sorawit Wanitanukul, K. Kubaha, R. Songprakorp
In Thailand, diesel buses are notorious for their poor energy efficiency and contribution to air pollution. To combat these issues, battery electric buses (BEBs) have emerged as a promising alternative. However, their high initial costs have posed challenges for fleet management, especially for agencies such as the Bangkok Mass Transit Authority (BMTA). This study aims to revolutionize BEB fleet management by developing an energy model tailored to the BMTA’s needs. The methodology consists of two crucial steps: analyzing BMTA bus routes and designing fleet management and charging systems. Through this process, the study seeks to determine the maximum number of BEBs that can be operated on each route with the fewest chargers possible. The results reveal exciting possibilities. Within the city bus landscape, two out of five BMTA bus routes show potential for transitioning to BEBs, provided they meet a maximum energy requirement of 200 kWh every two rounds. This analysis identifies routes ripe for BEB adoption while considering the limitations of battery size. In the next step, the study unveils a game-changing strategy: a maximum of 13 BEBs can operate on two routes with just four chargers requiring 150 kW each. This means fewer chargers and more efficient operations. Plus, the charging profile peaks at 600 kW from 4:00 to 8:00 p.m., showing when and where the fleet needs power the most. However, the real eye-opener? Significant energy savings of THB 10.44 million per year compared to diesel buses, with an initial investment cost savings of over 37%. These findings underscore the potential for BEB fleet management to revolutionize public transportation and save money in the long run. However, there is more work to be done. The study highlights the need for real-time passenger considerations, the development of post-service charging strategies, and a deeper dive into total lifetime costs. These areas of improvement promise even greater strides in the future of sustainable urban transportation.
在泰国,柴油公交车因能源效率低和造成空气污染而臭名昭著。为了解决这些问题,电池电动公交车(BEB)已成为一种很有前途的替代方案。然而,其高昂的初始成本给车队管理带来了挑战,尤其是对曼谷公共交通管理局(BMTA)等机构而言。本研究旨在通过开发适合 BMTA 需求的能源模型,彻底改变 BEB 车队的管理模式。研究方法包括两个关键步骤:分析 BMTA 公交线路,设计车队管理和充电系统。通过这一过程,该研究旨在确定每条线路上能够以尽可能少的充电器运行的最大 BEB 数量。研究结果揭示了令人兴奋的可能性。在城市公交范围内,BMTA 五条公交线路中就有两条具有向 BEB 过渡的潜力,前提是它们必须满足每两轮 200 kWh 的最大能源需求。这项分析确定了采用 BEB 的成熟路线,同时考虑到了电池尺寸的限制。下一步,研究揭示了一种改变游戏规则的策略:最多可有 13 辆 BEB 在两条线路上运行,只需四个充电桩,每个充电桩需要 150 千瓦。这意味着充电桩数量更少,运营效率更高。此外,下午 4:00 至 8:00 的充电曲线峰值为 600 千瓦,显示了车队何时何地最需要电力。然而,真正令人大开眼界的是什么?与柴油公交车相比,每年可节省大量能源,达 1044 万泰铢,初始投资成本节省 37% 以上。这些发现凸显了 BEB 车队管理为公共交通带来变革并长期节约成本的潜力。然而,还有更多的工作要做。该研究强调了实时考虑乘客需求、制定服务后收费策略以及深入研究总寿命成本的必要性。这些方面的改进有望为未来的可持续城市交通带来更大的进步。
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引用次数: 0
An Effective Charging Torque Elimination Method for Dual-Channel Electric-Drive-Reconstructed Onboard Chargers 双通道电驱动重构车载充电器的有效充电扭矩消除方法
IF 2.3 Q2 Engineering Pub Date : 2024-05-08 DOI: 10.3390/wevj15050205
Xunhui Cheng, Feng Yu, Linhao Qiu
The idea of electric-drive-reconstructed onboard charger (EDROC) systems, along with the concept of dual-channel charging, offers a novel design, thought to enhance the integration and fault tolerance of the charging system of electric vehicles (EVs). This article investigates a dual-channel EDROC incorporating an asymmetrical six-phase permanent magnet synchronous machine (ASPMSM). A unique operation mode, called the unbalanced charging voltage operation mode, exists in this topology, in case the voltages of the two batteries are unequal. This unbalance results in different winding currents following through two channels, leading to an undesired charging torque in the machine. To ensure the safety of the system, an effective charging torque elimination method, based on dual-channel winding current balance, is proposed, which achieves a dot-shaped current path of torque generation-associated subspace (i.e., α–β subspace) by balancing the dual-channel charging power. Eventually, a controller is designed for the system and a prototype is created, to validate the effectiveness of the proposed method.
电驱动重构车载充电器(EDROC)系统的理念以及双通道充电的概念提供了一种新颖的设计,被认为可提高电动汽车(EV)充电系统的集成度和容错性。本文研究了一种采用非对称六相永磁同步电机(ASPMSM)的双通道 EDROC。在这种拓扑结构中,如果两个电池的电压不相等,就会出现一种独特的运行模式,即不平衡充电电压运行模式。这种不平衡会导致通过两个通道的绕组电流不同,从而在机器中产生不期望的充电扭矩。为确保系统安全,提出了一种基于双通道绕组电流平衡的有效充电转矩消除方法,通过平衡双通道充电功率,实现转矩产生相关子空间(即 α-β 子空间)的点状电流路径。最终,为该系统设计了一个控制器,并创建了一个原型,以验证所提方法的有效性。
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引用次数: 0
Online Fault Detection of Open-Circuit Faults in a DTP-PMSM Using Double DQ Current Prediction 利用双 DQ 电流预测在线检测 DTP-PMSM 中的开路故障
IF 2.3 Q2 Engineering Pub Date : 2024-05-08 DOI: 10.3390/wevj15050204
Qiang Geng, Wenhao Du, Xuefeng Jin, Guozheng Zhang, Zhanqing Zhou
This research proposes a strategy to diagnose open-phase faults (OPF) and open-switching faults (OSF) in dual three-phase permanent magnet synchronous motor (DTP-PMSM) inverters. The method is based on the dual d–q predictive current model and involves establishing a mathematical model and utilizing the finite control set model predictive current extraction technique to predict the motor current. It then analyzes the characteristics of the switching-tube current under both normal and fault conditions. Finally, a fault predictive current model is introduced and the residual is calculated based on the predicted fault current value and the actual measured current value to diagnose the inverter fault. The proposed method effectively overcomes misjudgment issues encountered in traditional open-circuit fault diagnosis of inverters. It enhances the system’s response speed during dynamic processes and strengthens the robustness of diagnosis algorithm parameters. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method can rapidly, effectively, and accurately diagnose open-circuit faults presented in this paper fastest within one-fifth of a current cycle. It achieves a diagnostic accuracy rate of 97% in the dual three-phase permanent magnet synchronous motor drive system.
本研究提出了一种诊断双三相永磁同步电机(DTP-PMSM)变频器开相故障(OPF)和开路开关故障(OSF)的策略。该方法基于双 d-q 预测电流模型,包括建立数学模型和利用有限控制集模型预测电流提取技术来预测电机电流。然后分析正常和故障条件下开关管电流的特性。最后,引入故障预测电流模型,根据预测的故障电流值和实际测量的电流值计算残差,诊断变频器故障。所提出的方法有效克服了传统逆变器开路故障诊断中遇到的误判问题。它提高了系统在动态过程中的响应速度,增强了诊断算法参数的鲁棒性。实验结果表明,本文提出的方法能在五分之一电流周期内快速、有效、准确地诊断开路故障。在双三相永磁同步电机驱动系统中,诊断准确率达到 97%。
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引用次数: 0
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World Electric Vehicle Journal
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