Pub Date : 2020-07-14DOI: 10.1080/24721840.2020.1785301
F. E. Robinson, Henry Williams, Adam T. Biggs
ABSTRACT Objective We tested the plausibility of the hypothesized Line Bias Illusion to explain a spatial disorientation phenomenon known as the Black Hole Illusion (BHI): in the absence of a visible horizon, pilots misjudge an implicit horizon from the convergence point of parallel runway edge lines. Background BHI occurs when impoverished visual conditions at night cause pilots to fly too low on landing approaches. Multiple hypotheses have been proposed to explain BHI, without clear consensus in the literature. Method We conducted multiple experiments in which participants judged the intersection point of dotted lines on a computer screen. In Experiment 1, participants placed a horizon line where they believed two converging dotted line segments should intersect. In Experiments 2A and 2B, participants estimated the intersection point of single dotted line segments with a separate solid line. Results Participants in Experiment 1 tended to place the intersection point of two converging lines too low on the computer screen. Participants in Experiments 2A and 2B tended to respond as if the stimulus lines were more horizontal than actually presented. Conclusion Our findings are consistent with the hypothesis that pilots misjudge the location of an implicit horizon based on the runway edge lines. In the context of a visual spatial strategy that assumes a stable horizon, such a misperception may cause pilots to adopt a low flight path.
{"title":"Preliminary Support for the Line Bias Illusion as a Contributor to Black Hole Effects","authors":"F. E. Robinson, Henry Williams, Adam T. Biggs","doi":"10.1080/24721840.2020.1785301","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/24721840.2020.1785301","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT Objective We tested the plausibility of the hypothesized Line Bias Illusion to explain a spatial disorientation phenomenon known as the Black Hole Illusion (BHI): in the absence of a visible horizon, pilots misjudge an implicit horizon from the convergence point of parallel runway edge lines. Background BHI occurs when impoverished visual conditions at night cause pilots to fly too low on landing approaches. Multiple hypotheses have been proposed to explain BHI, without clear consensus in the literature. Method We conducted multiple experiments in which participants judged the intersection point of dotted lines on a computer screen. In Experiment 1, participants placed a horizon line where they believed two converging dotted line segments should intersect. In Experiments 2A and 2B, participants estimated the intersection point of single dotted line segments with a separate solid line. Results Participants in Experiment 1 tended to place the intersection point of two converging lines too low on the computer screen. Participants in Experiments 2A and 2B tended to respond as if the stimulus lines were more horizontal than actually presented. Conclusion Our findings are consistent with the hypothesis that pilots misjudge the location of an implicit horizon based on the runway edge lines. In the context of a visual spatial strategy that assumes a stable horizon, such a misperception may cause pilots to adopt a low flight path.","PeriodicalId":41693,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Aerospace Psychology","volume":"30 1","pages":"130 - 151"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2020-07-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/24721840.2020.1785301","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43413252","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-06-16DOI: 10.1080/24721840.2020.1774379
Tevfik Uyar, Mahmut Paksoy
ABSTRACT Objective To understand the relationship between the presentation of risk expressions in terms of loss/gain and safety personnel’s evaluation of risk probability in the context of prospect theory. Background One of the major topics of behavioral economics is the issue of decision-making under uncertainty, and prospect theory is the most prominent theory in the field. This theory claims that individuals’ perceptions of losses are more severe than their perceptions of gains, and thus, the utility–value function is not symmetrical. Method Two studies (N = 39 and N = 49) were performed in which business aviation safety professionals were asked to assess several risk expressions. In each study, subjects were divided into two groups. One group assessed unframed risk events, while the other assessed positively framed ones. Average probability values of each group were compared to each other, in order to understand whether framing caused a shift in risk assessment. Results Positively framing the risk expressions caused risk assessors to focus on threats instead of existing measures and to show “risk aversion” for two out of five risks – notably, the two related to human factors. Conclusion These results show that prospect theory predictions regarding decision-making under uncertainty may not be limited to financial decisions and can be extended to safety risk assessment.
{"title":"Framing Effect in Safety Risk Probability Assessment: A Prospect Theory Approach","authors":"Tevfik Uyar, Mahmut Paksoy","doi":"10.1080/24721840.2020.1774379","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/24721840.2020.1774379","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT Objective To understand the relationship between the presentation of risk expressions in terms of loss/gain and safety personnel’s evaluation of risk probability in the context of prospect theory. Background One of the major topics of behavioral economics is the issue of decision-making under uncertainty, and prospect theory is the most prominent theory in the field. This theory claims that individuals’ perceptions of losses are more severe than their perceptions of gains, and thus, the utility–value function is not symmetrical. Method Two studies (N = 39 and N = 49) were performed in which business aviation safety professionals were asked to assess several risk expressions. In each study, subjects were divided into two groups. One group assessed unframed risk events, while the other assessed positively framed ones. Average probability values of each group were compared to each other, in order to understand whether framing caused a shift in risk assessment. Results Positively framing the risk expressions caused risk assessors to focus on threats instead of existing measures and to show “risk aversion” for two out of five risks – notably, the two related to human factors. Conclusion These results show that prospect theory predictions regarding decision-making under uncertainty may not be limited to financial decisions and can be extended to safety risk assessment.","PeriodicalId":41693,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Aerospace Psychology","volume":"30 1","pages":"119 - 129"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2020-06-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/24721840.2020.1774379","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43202715","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-06-08DOI: 10.1080/24721840.2020.1763175
Stephanie K. Douglas, L. Pittenger
ABSTRACT Objective: This study measured the resilience of female pilots using the Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Background: Adversity in the workplace causes occupational stress, influencing resiliency, and reducing job performance and wellness. This can lead to burnout and attrition. Female pilots in male-dominated work environments experience adversity, resulting in occupational stress. Resilience may be a mitigating factor for coping with occupational stress. Women in male-dominated professions remain the extreme minority. Further, a severe pilot shortage magnifies the need to recruit and retain pilots from underrepresented groups. Method: Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were applied to validate the use of the CD-RISC for measuring resilience in female pilots. Inter- and intra-group resilience score comparisons of the 1,302 female pilots were analyzed. Results: An abridged version of the CD-RISC was found applicable to measuring resilience in female pilots. Age and work experience of the female pilots imply that they may influence higher resilience. A significantly lower resilience score was found in the sample in comparison to a national sample average resilience score. Conclusion: Female pilots’ resilience is likely influenced by workplace adversity, which may lead to increased occupation stress, greater attrition, and fewer pilot entrants. Interventions aimed at increasing the resiliency of female pilots are critical to solving the pilot shortage. The findings provide insight into the recruitment, retention, and development of women in male-dominated occupations.
{"title":"Adversity in Aviation: Understanding Resilience in the Workplace for Female Pilots","authors":"Stephanie K. Douglas, L. Pittenger","doi":"10.1080/24721840.2020.1763175","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/24721840.2020.1763175","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT Objective: This study measured the resilience of female pilots using the Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Background: Adversity in the workplace causes occupational stress, influencing resiliency, and reducing job performance and wellness. This can lead to burnout and attrition. Female pilots in male-dominated work environments experience adversity, resulting in occupational stress. Resilience may be a mitigating factor for coping with occupational stress. Women in male-dominated professions remain the extreme minority. Further, a severe pilot shortage magnifies the need to recruit and retain pilots from underrepresented groups. Method: Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were applied to validate the use of the CD-RISC for measuring resilience in female pilots. Inter- and intra-group resilience score comparisons of the 1,302 female pilots were analyzed. Results: An abridged version of the CD-RISC was found applicable to measuring resilience in female pilots. Age and work experience of the female pilots imply that they may influence higher resilience. A significantly lower resilience score was found in the sample in comparison to a national sample average resilience score. Conclusion: Female pilots’ resilience is likely influenced by workplace adversity, which may lead to increased occupation stress, greater attrition, and fewer pilot entrants. Interventions aimed at increasing the resiliency of female pilots are critical to solving the pilot shortage. The findings provide insight into the recruitment, retention, and development of women in male-dominated occupations.","PeriodicalId":41693,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Aerospace Psychology","volume":"30 1","pages":"89 - 103"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2020-06-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/24721840.2020.1763175","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45094999","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-06-08DOI: 10.1080/24721840.2020.1763798
Annemarie Landman, Sophie H. van Middelaar, E. Groen, M. V. van Paassen, A. Bronkhorst, M. Mulder
ABSTRACT Background: Mnemonic-type startle and surprise procedures were previously proposed to help pilots cope with startle and surprise in-flight, but effects on performance after procedure execution have not yet been investigated. Objective: Thus, we tested the effectiveness a new mnemonic-type procedure in a moving-base simulator with a non-linear model of a small twin-propeller aircraft flown single-pilot. Method: An experimental group of twelve line pilots was trained to use a four-item procedure: 1. Calm down: take a deep breath, sit up straight and relax shoulders and hands. 2. Observe: call out the basic flight parameters. 3. Outline: formulate a hypothesis about the problem. 4. Lead: formulate and execute a plan of action. A control group of twelve line pilots received a control training. Next, all pilots performed four scenarios with startling and surprising events. Data were obtained on pilot performance, stress, procedure application and evaluation. Results: Application of the procedure in the test scenarios was high (90.0% full, 100.0% partly), and pilots evaluated the procedure positively (median: 4 on a 1–5 point scale). There was significantly superior decision-making in the experimental group, but immediate responses were significantly less optimal. Pilots sometimes applied the procedure at inappropriate moments. Conclusion: The results of the tested mnemonic-type procedure were promising. The procedure may benefit, however, from modifications to reduce complexity and to stimulate application at the appropriate moment.
{"title":"The Effectiveness of a Mnemonic-Type Startle and Surprise Management Procedure for Pilots","authors":"Annemarie Landman, Sophie H. van Middelaar, E. Groen, M. V. van Paassen, A. Bronkhorst, M. Mulder","doi":"10.1080/24721840.2020.1763798","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/24721840.2020.1763798","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT Background: Mnemonic-type startle and surprise procedures were previously proposed to help pilots cope with startle and surprise in-flight, but effects on performance after procedure execution have not yet been investigated. Objective: Thus, we tested the effectiveness a new mnemonic-type procedure in a moving-base simulator with a non-linear model of a small twin-propeller aircraft flown single-pilot. Method: An experimental group of twelve line pilots was trained to use a four-item procedure: 1. Calm down: take a deep breath, sit up straight and relax shoulders and hands. 2. Observe: call out the basic flight parameters. 3. Outline: formulate a hypothesis about the problem. 4. Lead: formulate and execute a plan of action. A control group of twelve line pilots received a control training. Next, all pilots performed four scenarios with startling and surprising events. Data were obtained on pilot performance, stress, procedure application and evaluation. Results: Application of the procedure in the test scenarios was high (90.0% full, 100.0% partly), and pilots evaluated the procedure positively (median: 4 on a 1–5 point scale). There was significantly superior decision-making in the experimental group, but immediate responses were significantly less optimal. Pilots sometimes applied the procedure at inappropriate moments. Conclusion: The results of the tested mnemonic-type procedure were promising. The procedure may benefit, however, from modifications to reduce complexity and to stimulate application at the appropriate moment.","PeriodicalId":41693,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Aerospace Psychology","volume":"30 1","pages":"104 - 118"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2020-06-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/24721840.2020.1763798","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"43604708","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-04-27DOI: 10.1080/24721840.2020.1742123
Rui-liang Yang, Lijing Wang, Chi Zhou, Sha Li, Donghan Geng
ABSTRACT Objective: This paper aims to provide an overview of concepts, progress, and challenges of life preservers, which may promote the importance of life preservers, and present several urgent issues on life preservers. Background: Although life preservers are required on an airplane in some overwater operations by the regulations of many countries, some airlines and many passengers have ignored life preservers. Method: Different requirements for life preservers are presented and compared. Then the progress on life preservers is analyzed. Based on these analyses, two problems of existing life preservers are summarized, and corresponding challenges are also proposed. Results: The difficulty of donning life preservers has been repeatedly proved through some major attempts to solve the problem. Furthermore, existing life preservers may make the passengers at risk of flight over cold water due to lack of thermal protection. Conclusion: Life preservers play a vital role in ensuring passenger safety in awater-related accident, but several urgent issues must be addressed on further improvement of life preservers.
{"title":"Life Preservers: Concepts, Progress, and Challenges","authors":"Rui-liang Yang, Lijing Wang, Chi Zhou, Sha Li, Donghan Geng","doi":"10.1080/24721840.2020.1742123","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/24721840.2020.1742123","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT Objective: This paper aims to provide an overview of concepts, progress, and challenges of life preservers, which may promote the importance of life preservers, and present several urgent issues on life preservers. Background: Although life preservers are required on an airplane in some overwater operations by the regulations of many countries, some airlines and many passengers have ignored life preservers. Method: Different requirements for life preservers are presented and compared. Then the progress on life preservers is analyzed. Based on these analyses, two problems of existing life preservers are summarized, and corresponding challenges are also proposed. Results: The difficulty of donning life preservers has been repeatedly proved through some major attempts to solve the problem. Furthermore, existing life preservers may make the passengers at risk of flight over cold water due to lack of thermal protection. Conclusion: Life preservers play a vital role in ensuring passenger safety in awater-related accident, but several urgent issues must be addressed on further improvement of life preservers.","PeriodicalId":41693,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Aerospace Psychology","volume":"30 1","pages":"77 - 88"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2020-04-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/24721840.2020.1742123","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"49580916","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-04-02DOI: 10.1080/24721840.2019.1696680
Rafał Lewkowicz, B. Bałaj, Piotr Francuz
ABSTRACT Objective: This study aimed to investigate whether pilots and non-pilots differ in their susceptibility to spatial disorientation (SD) during a flight in various disorienting scenarios, and in coping with SD. Background: Pilot selection is relevant in assessing pilots’ susceptibility to SD. However, SD-related accidents indicate that it may not be fully effective. Method: A set of 12 flight sequences (six containing an SD conflict, three with vestibular and three with visual illusions) was flown by military pilots (N = 20; age: M = 31.6; SD = 8.22) and non-pilots (N = 20; age: M = 30.95; SD = 7.72) in a flight simulator specially designed for SD research and training. The number and mean magnitude of control reversal errors (CREs) were calculated along with the effects of SD conflict on flight performance. Results: With two exceptions, in all SD-conflict flights, the mean number of CREs increased. For mean magnitudes of CREs, the same effects were not observed. Pilots and non-pilots differed in disorientation conditions (M = 4.5 ± 1.95 vs M = 2.6 ± 2.41) only in one profile (shape constancy illusion). In the other two (false horizon and leans illusions), the applied SD cues significantly affected their flight performance. Conclusion: Although the effects of SD cues on flight performance were observed, the applied disorientation scenario would not be useful in the pilot selection procedure. To provide the criteria to select pilot candidates, other disorientation scenarios, or even a different flight simulator should be considered.
摘要目的:本研究旨在探讨飞行员和非飞行员在飞行过程中不同定向障碍情境下对空间定向障碍的易感性和应对能力是否存在差异。背景:飞行员选择与评估飞行员对SD的易感性有关。然而，与sd相关的事故表明，它可能不会完全有效。方法:选取军事飞行员的12组飞行序列(6组包含SD冲突，3组包含前庭幻觉，3组包含视错觉)(N = 20;年龄:M = 31.6;SD = 8.22)和非飞行员(N = 20;年龄:M = 30.95;SD = 7.72)，在专门为SD研究和训练设计的飞行模拟器中。计算了控制反转误差(CREs)的数量和平均大小以及SD冲突对飞行性能的影响。结果:除2个例外，在所有sd冲突航班中，cre的平均数量增加。对于cre的平均量级，没有观察到相同的影响。飞行员和非飞行员在定向障碍条件(M = 4.5±1.95 vs M = 2.6±2.41)仅在一个侧面(形状恒定错觉)存在差异。在另外两种情况下(假地平线和倾斜错觉)，SD提示显著影响了他们的飞行表现。结论:虽然观察到SD线索对飞行表现的影响，但定向障碍情景在飞行员选拔过程中并不有用。为了提供选择飞行员候选人的标准，应该考虑其他定向障碍场景，甚至是不同的飞行模拟器。
{"title":"Susceptibility to Flight Simulator-Induced Spatial Disorientation in Pilots and Non-Pilots","authors":"Rafał Lewkowicz, B. Bałaj, Piotr Francuz","doi":"10.1080/24721840.2019.1696680","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/24721840.2019.1696680","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT Objective: This study aimed to investigate whether pilots and non-pilots differ in their susceptibility to spatial disorientation (SD) during a flight in various disorienting scenarios, and in coping with SD. Background: Pilot selection is relevant in assessing pilots’ susceptibility to SD. However, SD-related accidents indicate that it may not be fully effective. Method: A set of 12 flight sequences (six containing an SD conflict, three with vestibular and three with visual illusions) was flown by military pilots (N = 20; age: M = 31.6; SD = 8.22) and non-pilots (N = 20; age: M = 30.95; SD = 7.72) in a flight simulator specially designed for SD research and training. The number and mean magnitude of control reversal errors (CREs) were calculated along with the effects of SD conflict on flight performance. Results: With two exceptions, in all SD-conflict flights, the mean number of CREs increased. For mean magnitudes of CREs, the same effects were not observed. Pilots and non-pilots differed in disorientation conditions (M = 4.5 ± 1.95 vs M = 2.6 ± 2.41) only in one profile (shape constancy illusion). In the other two (false horizon and leans illusions), the applied SD cues significantly affected their flight performance. Conclusion: Although the effects of SD cues on flight performance were observed, the applied disorientation scenario would not be useful in the pilot selection procedure. To provide the criteria to select pilot candidates, other disorientation scenarios, or even a different flight simulator should be considered.","PeriodicalId":41693,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Aerospace Psychology","volume":"30 1","pages":"25 - 37"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2020-04-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/24721840.2019.1696680","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44501106","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-04-02DOI: 10.1080/24721840.2019.1696196
D. Schmid, N. Stanton
ABSTRACT Objective: The present article undertakes a systematic review of the current state of science for Single-Pilot Operations (SPO) and Reduced-Crew Operations (RCO) in commercial aviation. Background: SPO/RCO have been investigated with different methods from various disciplines and different organizations to make research progress. The results of federal agencies’, universities’, and EU-projects’ research activities have not been brought together for synthesis yet. Method: We systematically searched for SPO and RCO as independent and fixed search terms retrieving altogether 75 publications on the topic. Exclusion criteria were general and military aviation. Results: Establishing an appropriate function allocation to cope with high workload and off-nominal situations could be achieved by applying a variety of methods and the consideration of advanced automation systems. Their application is required to investigate pilot incapacitation and communication issues further. Data-link and certification issues were acknowledged in principle and have not been solved yet. Conclusion: In sum, experimental studies and modeling techniques of system ergonomics have addressed operational issues very well. Pilot health monitoring systems are less well elaborated than system protection. Future research needs to integrate different research findings and automation technologies. This is necessary to make RCO to a viable and attractive option for commercial development in aviation. Abbreviations: ACFP: Autonomous Constrained Flight Planner; AOC: Airline Operations Center; ATC: Air Traffic Control; BP: Blood Pressure; CNPC: Control and Non-Payload Communication; ConOps: Concept of Operations; CMS: Crew Monitoring System; CRM: Crew Resource Management; CWA: Cognitive Work Analysis; EACS: Emergency Aircraft Control System; EAS: Emergency Avoidance System; EAST: Event Analysis of Systemic Teamwork; ECG: Electrocardiogram; EDA: Electrodermal Activity; EEG: Electroencephalogram; EMG: Electromyogram; EOG: Electrooculogram; ESP: Electronic Stand-by-Pilot; FMS: Flight Management System; fNRIS: functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy; FRF: Flight Reconfiguration Function; GS: Ground Station; HAT: Human-Autonomy Teaming; HR: Heart Rate; HTA: Hierarchical Task Analysis; IATA: International Air Transport Association; MCO: Multi-Crew Operations; NASA-TLX: NASA Task Load Index; OESD: Operational Event Sequence Diagrams; OTDS: On-board Threat Detection System; PF: Pilot Flying; PKI: Public Key Infrastructure; PM: Pilot Monitoring; RCO: Reduced-Crew Operations; RR: Respiratory Rate; SA: Situation Awareness; SART: Situation Awareness Rating Technique; SME: Subject Matter Expert; SNA: Social Network Analysis; SPO: Single-Pilot Operations; SRM: Single-Pilot Resource Management; STAMP: System-Theoretic Accident Modeling and Process; STPA: System-Theoretic Process Analysis; SVM: Support Vector Machine; TARMS: Threat Assessment and Response Management System; UAV: Unmanned Aerial Vehi
{"title":"Progressing Toward Airliners’ Reduced-Crew Operations: A Systematic Literature Review","authors":"D. Schmid, N. Stanton","doi":"10.1080/24721840.2019.1696196","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/24721840.2019.1696196","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT Objective: The present article undertakes a systematic review of the current state of science for Single-Pilot Operations (SPO) and Reduced-Crew Operations (RCO) in commercial aviation. Background: SPO/RCO have been investigated with different methods from various disciplines and different organizations to make research progress. The results of federal agencies’, universities’, and EU-projects’ research activities have not been brought together for synthesis yet. Method: We systematically searched for SPO and RCO as independent and fixed search terms retrieving altogether 75 publications on the topic. Exclusion criteria were general and military aviation. Results: Establishing an appropriate function allocation to cope with high workload and off-nominal situations could be achieved by applying a variety of methods and the consideration of advanced automation systems. Their application is required to investigate pilot incapacitation and communication issues further. Data-link and certification issues were acknowledged in principle and have not been solved yet. Conclusion: In sum, experimental studies and modeling techniques of system ergonomics have addressed operational issues very well. Pilot health monitoring systems are less well elaborated than system protection. Future research needs to integrate different research findings and automation technologies. This is necessary to make RCO to a viable and attractive option for commercial development in aviation. Abbreviations: ACFP: Autonomous Constrained Flight Planner; AOC: Airline Operations Center; ATC: Air Traffic Control; BP: Blood Pressure; CNPC: Control and Non-Payload Communication; ConOps: Concept of Operations; CMS: Crew Monitoring System; CRM: Crew Resource Management; CWA: Cognitive Work Analysis; EACS: Emergency Aircraft Control System; EAS: Emergency Avoidance System; EAST: Event Analysis of Systemic Teamwork; ECG: Electrocardiogram; EDA: Electrodermal Activity; EEG: Electroencephalogram; EMG: Electromyogram; EOG: Electrooculogram; ESP: Electronic Stand-by-Pilot; FMS: Flight Management System; fNRIS: functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy; FRF: Flight Reconfiguration Function; GS: Ground Station; HAT: Human-Autonomy Teaming; HR: Heart Rate; HTA: Hierarchical Task Analysis; IATA: International Air Transport Association; MCO: Multi-Crew Operations; NASA-TLX: NASA Task Load Index; OESD: Operational Event Sequence Diagrams; OTDS: On-board Threat Detection System; PF: Pilot Flying; PKI: Public Key Infrastructure; PM: Pilot Monitoring; RCO: Reduced-Crew Operations; RR: Respiratory Rate; SA: Situation Awareness; SART: Situation Awareness Rating Technique; SME: Subject Matter Expert; SNA: Social Network Analysis; SPO: Single-Pilot Operations; SRM: Single-Pilot Resource Management; STAMP: System-Theoretic Accident Modeling and Process; STPA: System-Theoretic Process Analysis; SVM: Support Vector Machine; TARMS: Threat Assessment and Response Management System; UAV: Unmanned Aerial Vehi","PeriodicalId":41693,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Aerospace Psychology","volume":"30 1","pages":"1 - 24"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2020-04-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/24721840.2019.1696196","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45674766","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-03-16DOI: 10.1080/24721840.2020.1735939
J. Nosker, A. Cornelius, M. Lassen, T. Bragg, Jennifer Killeen
ABSTRACT Objective: A validation study was conducted on the Flight Risk Assessment (FRA), a unique self-report fatigue measure for flight medics on duty. Background: Air medical professionals face unique challenges above and beyond the difficulty of working in a hospital setting or prehospital ground medicine. Providers frequently work multiple 24-hour shifts, resulting in circadian rhythm disturbance and cumulative sleep loss. The plane environment and the effects of flight are also contributory to fatigue; however, air medics must engage in emergent, time-sensitive, life-saving procedures despite these challenging circumstances. Although the aeromedical industry has rapidly expanded in the past several decades, the field of flight medicine lacks validated tools to evaluate fatigue levels, and many companies rely on flight providers’ recognition of fatigue to prevent work-related mistakes. Method: To establish construct validity, scores on the FRA were compared to scores on the Psychomotor Vigilance Test (PVT), an objective measure of fatigue. Results: The results indicate that a total of five questions on the FRA was significantly and strongly correlated with mean reaction time on the PVT (r = .60, p = .001). Perceived fitness for duty was poorly correlated with fatigue levels as measured by the FRA (r < .01) suggesting medics may have difficulty recognizing when they are fatigued and fit for duty. Conclusion: The air medical industry is rapidly expanding, and valid and reliable measures are indicated to assess fatigue levels among providers. Initial findings suggest the FRA is an efficient tool to objectively measure the fatigue levels of air medics through a self-report measure.
{"title":"Fatigue in Aeromedicine: A Validity Study of the Flight Risk Assessment","authors":"J. Nosker, A. Cornelius, M. Lassen, T. Bragg, Jennifer Killeen","doi":"10.1080/24721840.2020.1735939","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/24721840.2020.1735939","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT Objective: A validation study was conducted on the Flight Risk Assessment (FRA), a unique self-report fatigue measure for flight medics on duty. Background: Air medical professionals face unique challenges above and beyond the difficulty of working in a hospital setting or prehospital ground medicine. Providers frequently work multiple 24-hour shifts, resulting in circadian rhythm disturbance and cumulative sleep loss. The plane environment and the effects of flight are also contributory to fatigue; however, air medics must engage in emergent, time-sensitive, life-saving procedures despite these challenging circumstances. Although the aeromedical industry has rapidly expanded in the past several decades, the field of flight medicine lacks validated tools to evaluate fatigue levels, and many companies rely on flight providers’ recognition of fatigue to prevent work-related mistakes. Method: To establish construct validity, scores on the FRA were compared to scores on the Psychomotor Vigilance Test (PVT), an objective measure of fatigue. Results: The results indicate that a total of five questions on the FRA was significantly and strongly correlated with mean reaction time on the PVT (r = .60, p = .001). Perceived fitness for duty was poorly correlated with fatigue levels as measured by the FRA (r < .01) suggesting medics may have difficulty recognizing when they are fatigued and fit for duty. Conclusion: The air medical industry is rapidly expanding, and valid and reliable measures are indicated to assess fatigue levels among providers. Initial findings suggest the FRA is an efficient tool to objectively measure the fatigue levels of air medics through a self-report measure.","PeriodicalId":41693,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Aerospace Psychology","volume":"30 1","pages":"69 - 75"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2020-03-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/24721840.2020.1735939","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44044413","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-01-31DOI: 10.1080/24721840.2020.1719010
F. E. Robinson, Henry Williams, Dain S Horning, Adam T. Biggs
ABSTRACT Objective: This study comparatively evaluated seven hypotheses to explain the Black Hole Illusion. Background: Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the Black Hole Illusion (BHI), with differing predictions. The Constant Visual Angle hypothesis predicts that short runways should cause greater BHI. Meanwhile, several other hypotheses predict that longer runways should cause more severe BHI. In addition, there is debate whether lack of ground cues promotes BHI via autokinesis or by biasing pilots’ perception of the runway. Method: Nineteen qualified pilots flew 27 simulated nighttime approaches in a fixed-base flight simulator. Participants flew under different combinations of runway length, starting distance from the runway, and starting altitude. We analyzed glideslope error, defined as a weighted sum of the error above or below a prescribed 3° glideslope, as well as RMSE around the approach path. Results: We found that pilots tended to demonstrate worse BHI effects during approaches to longer runways and when starting at low altitudes compared to high altitudes. Daylight and nighttime flights showed a similar variance around the glideslope. Conclusion: The constant visual angle hypothesis is not supported by our findings. We observed consistent glideslopes across starting locations and similar variance during day/night conditions, leading us to favor biased perception of the runway over autokinetic effects to explain the influence of contextual features on BHI.
{"title":"A Comparative Evaluation of Hypotheses to Explain the Black Hole Illusion","authors":"F. E. Robinson, Henry Williams, Dain S Horning, Adam T. Biggs","doi":"10.1080/24721840.2020.1719010","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/24721840.2020.1719010","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT Objective: This study comparatively evaluated seven hypotheses to explain the Black Hole Illusion. Background: Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the Black Hole Illusion (BHI), with differing predictions. The Constant Visual Angle hypothesis predicts that short runways should cause greater BHI. Meanwhile, several other hypotheses predict that longer runways should cause more severe BHI. In addition, there is debate whether lack of ground cues promotes BHI via autokinesis or by biasing pilots’ perception of the runway. Method: Nineteen qualified pilots flew 27 simulated nighttime approaches in a fixed-base flight simulator. Participants flew under different combinations of runway length, starting distance from the runway, and starting altitude. We analyzed glideslope error, defined as a weighted sum of the error above or below a prescribed 3° glideslope, as well as RMSE around the approach path. Results: We found that pilots tended to demonstrate worse BHI effects during approaches to longer runways and when starting at low altitudes compared to high altitudes. Daylight and nighttime flights showed a similar variance around the glideslope. Conclusion: The constant visual angle hypothesis is not supported by our findings. We observed consistent glideslopes across starting locations and similar variance during day/night conditions, leading us to favor biased perception of the runway over autokinetic effects to explain the influence of contextual features on BHI.","PeriodicalId":41693,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Aerospace Psychology","volume":"30 1","pages":"54 - 68"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2020-01-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/24721840.2020.1719010","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"48506496","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2020-01-30DOI: 10.1080/24721840.2020.1715803
Jack Limor, A. Borowsky
ABSTRACT Objectives: This study examined the relations between flight experience of commercial aviation aircrews consisted of a captain (CAP) and a first officer (FO) and their relative representation in unsafe missed approach incidents. Background: This study follows an earlier study where 59 official safety reports of unsafe missed approach procedure (MAP) events were analyzed. Method: The current study utilized these reports to explore the relations between the aircrew’s specific flight experience (SFE) on the aircraft’s type rating that was involved in the incident and the aircrews’ performance during MAP safety incident. Results: There were significantly more incidents involving CAPs with intermediate level of SFE than incidents involving CAPs with high or low SFE. Furthermore, the interrelation between the SFEs of the CAP and the FO of the same aircrew showed that the number of incidents involving FOs with low SFE was significantly higher than that involving FOs with higher SFE. Furthermore, there were significantly more MAP events when the FO took the role of pilot monitoring compared to pilot flying. Discussion: It is suggested that CAPs with an intermediate SFE might feel that they have sufficient skills to operate the airplane, but in fact, they are not yet skilled enough. We further discuss the possibility that issues of authority and hierarchy inside the cockpit play a role and affect the aircrew’s performance.
{"title":"Does Specific Flight Experience Matter? The Relations Between Flight Experience of Commercial Aviation Aircrews and Missed Approach Incidents","authors":"Jack Limor, A. Borowsky","doi":"10.1080/24721840.2020.1715803","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/24721840.2020.1715803","url":null,"abstract":"ABSTRACT Objectives: This study examined the relations between flight experience of commercial aviation aircrews consisted of a captain (CAP) and a first officer (FO) and their relative representation in unsafe missed approach incidents. Background: This study follows an earlier study where 59 official safety reports of unsafe missed approach procedure (MAP) events were analyzed. Method: The current study utilized these reports to explore the relations between the aircrew’s specific flight experience (SFE) on the aircraft’s type rating that was involved in the incident and the aircrews’ performance during MAP safety incident. Results: There were significantly more incidents involving CAPs with intermediate level of SFE than incidents involving CAPs with high or low SFE. Furthermore, the interrelation between the SFEs of the CAP and the FO of the same aircrew showed that the number of incidents involving FOs with low SFE was significantly higher than that involving FOs with higher SFE. Furthermore, there were significantly more MAP events when the FO took the role of pilot monitoring compared to pilot flying. Discussion: It is suggested that CAPs with an intermediate SFE might feel that they have sufficient skills to operate the airplane, but in fact, they are not yet skilled enough. We further discuss the possibility that issues of authority and hierarchy inside the cockpit play a role and affect the aircrew’s performance.","PeriodicalId":41693,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Aerospace Psychology","volume":"30 1","pages":"38 - 53"},"PeriodicalIF":1.3,"publicationDate":"2020-01-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1080/24721840.2020.1715803","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45746323","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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