Bryant Goodenough, Alexander Czarnecki, Darrell Robinette, Jeremy Worm, Brian Burroughs, Phil Latendresse, John Westman
The heavy-duty off-road industry continues to expand efforts to reduce fuel consumption and CO2e (carbon dioxide equivalent) emissions. Many manufacturers are pursuing electrification to decrease fuel consumption and emissions. Future policies will likely require electrification for CO2e savings, as seen in light-duty on-road vehicles. Electrified architectures vary widely in the heavy-duty off-road space, with parallel hybrids in some applications and series hybrids in others. The diverse applications for different types of equipment mean different electrified configurations are required. Companies must also determine the value in pursuing electrified architectures; this work analyzes a range of electrified architectures, from micro hybrids to parallel hybrids to series hybrids to a BEV, looking at the total cost, total CO2e, and cost per CO2e (cost of carbon abatement, or cost of carbon reduction) using data for the year 2021. This study is focused on a heavy-duty off-road material handler, the Pettibone Cary-Lift 204i. This machine’s specialty application, including events like unloading large oil pipes from a railcar, requires a unique electrified architecture that suits its specific needs. However, the results from this study may be extrapolated to similar machinery to inform fuel savings options across the heavy-duty off-road industry. In this study, a unique electrified architecture is determined for the Cary-Lift. This architecture is informed by multiple rounds of a Pugh matrix decision analysis to select a shortened list of desirable electrified architectures. The shortened list is modeled and simulated to determine CO2e, cost, and cost per CO2e. A final architecture is determined as a plug-in series hybrid that reduces fuel consumption by 65%, targeting the large fuel and CO2e savings that are likely to be required for the future of the heavy-duty off-road industry.
{"title":"Propulsion Electrification Architecture Selection Process and Cost of\u0000 Carbon Abatement Analysis for Heavy-Duty Off-Road Material\u0000 Handler","authors":"Bryant Goodenough, Alexander Czarnecki, Darrell Robinette, Jeremy Worm, Brian Burroughs, Phil Latendresse, John Westman","doi":"10.4271/02-17-03-0014","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/02-17-03-0014","url":null,"abstract":"The heavy-duty off-road industry continues to expand efforts to reduce fuel\u0000 consumption and CO2e (carbon dioxide equivalent) emissions. Many\u0000 manufacturers are pursuing electrification to decrease fuel consumption and\u0000 emissions. Future policies will likely require electrification for\u0000 CO2e savings, as seen in light-duty on-road vehicles. Electrified\u0000 architectures vary widely in the heavy-duty off-road space, with parallel\u0000 hybrids in some applications and series hybrids in others. The diverse\u0000 applications for different types of equipment mean different electrified\u0000 configurations are required. Companies must also determine the value in pursuing\u0000 electrified architectures; this work analyzes a range of electrified\u0000 architectures, from micro hybrids to parallel hybrids to series hybrids to a\u0000 BEV, looking at the total cost, total CO2e, and cost per\u0000 CO2e (cost of carbon abatement, or cost of carbon reduction)\u0000 using data for the year 2021. This study is focused on a heavy-duty off-road\u0000 material handler, the Pettibone Cary-Lift 204i. This machine’s specialty\u0000 application, including events like unloading large oil pipes from a railcar,\u0000 requires a unique electrified architecture that suits its specific needs.\u0000 However, the results from this study may be extrapolated to similar machinery to\u0000 inform fuel savings options across the heavy-duty off-road industry. In this\u0000 study, a unique electrified architecture is determined for the Cary-Lift. This\u0000 architecture is informed by multiple rounds of a Pugh matrix decision analysis\u0000 to select a shortened list of desirable electrified architectures. The shortened\u0000 list is modeled and simulated to determine CO2e, cost, and cost per\u0000 CO2e. A final architecture is determined as a plug-in series\u0000 hybrid that reduces fuel consumption by 65%, targeting the large fuel and\u0000 CO2e savings that are likely to be required for the future of the\u0000 heavy-duty off-road industry.","PeriodicalId":45281,"journal":{"name":"SAE International Journal of Commercial Vehicles","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.6,"publicationDate":"2024-07-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141683478","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Siddhant Dhere, Suryakant Gupta, G. C. M. Kumar, Vamsikrishna Reddy
The development of electric commercial vehicles brought up novel challenges in the design of efficient and reliable air brake systems. The compressor is one of the critical components of the air brake system and is responsible for supplying pressurized air to the brake system. In this study, we aimed to gather essential information regarding the pressure and flow rate requirements for the compressor in the air brake system of electric commercial vehicles. We extensively analyzed the existing air brake systems utilized in conventional commercial vehicles. We examined the performance characteristics of reciprocating compressors traditionally employed in these systems. Recognizing the need for novel compressor designs tailored to electric commercial vehicles, we focused on identifying the specifics such as efficiency, performance characteristics, reliability, and cost of the compressor. Our study utilized theoretical calculations to ascertain the optimal pressure and flow rate parameters. By thoroughly evaluating vehicle brake standards and meticulously analyzing relevant data, we gained a comprehensive understanding of the performance requirements for compressors in electric commercial vehicle air brake systems. Our analysis considered various factors, including vehicle weight, stopping distance, and operational conditions, providing valuable insights into the specific needs of these systems. The research results serve as the foundation for developing compressors that are more efficient, reliable, and compatible with electric vehicles equipped with regeneration capabilities. Ultimately, implementing these improvements will raise the standard for safety, reliability, and overall performance in the air brake systems of electric commercial vehicles.
{"title":"Technical Study for the Development of Air Brake Compressor in\u0000 Electric Commercial Vehicles","authors":"Siddhant Dhere, Suryakant Gupta, G. C. M. Kumar, Vamsikrishna Reddy","doi":"10.4271/02-17-02-0013","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/02-17-02-0013","url":null,"abstract":"The development of electric commercial vehicles brought up novel challenges in\u0000 the design of efficient and reliable air brake systems. The compressor is one of\u0000 the critical components of the air brake system and is responsible for supplying\u0000 pressurized air to the brake system. In this study, we aimed to gather essential\u0000 information regarding the pressure and flow rate requirements for the compressor\u0000 in the air brake system of electric commercial vehicles. We extensively analyzed\u0000 the existing air brake systems utilized in conventional commercial vehicles. We\u0000 examined the performance characteristics of reciprocating compressors\u0000 traditionally employed in these systems. Recognizing the need for novel\u0000 compressor designs tailored to electric commercial vehicles, we focused on\u0000 identifying the specifics such as efficiency, performance characteristics,\u0000 reliability, and cost of the compressor.\u0000\u0000 \u0000Our study utilized theoretical calculations to ascertain the optimal pressure and\u0000 flow rate parameters. By thoroughly evaluating vehicle brake standards and\u0000 meticulously analyzing relevant data, we gained a comprehensive understanding of\u0000 the performance requirements for compressors in electric commercial vehicle air\u0000 brake systems. Our analysis considered various factors, including vehicle\u0000 weight, stopping distance, and operational conditions, providing valuable\u0000 insights into the specific needs of these systems.\u0000\u0000 \u0000The research results serve as the foundation for developing compressors that are\u0000 more efficient, reliable, and compatible with electric vehicles equipped with\u0000 regeneration capabilities. Ultimately, implementing these improvements will\u0000 raise the standard for safety, reliability, and overall performance in the air\u0000 brake systems of electric commercial vehicles.","PeriodicalId":45281,"journal":{"name":"SAE International Journal of Commercial Vehicles","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2024-05-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141129385","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The escalating demand for more efficient and sustainable working machines has pushed manufacturers toward adopting electric hybrid technology. Electric powertrains promise significant fuel savings, which are highly dependent on the nature of the duty cycle of the machine. In this study, experimental data measured from a wheel loader in a short-loading Y-cycle is used to exercise a developed mathematical model of a series electric hybrid wheel loader. The efficiency and energy consumption of the studied architecture are analyzed and compared to the consumption of the measured conventional machine that uses a diesel engine and a hydrostatic transmission. The results show at least 30% reduction in fuel consumption by using the proposed series electric hybrid powertrain, the diesel engine rotational speed is steady, and the transient loads are mitigated by the electric powertrain. The model also shows that 20% of drive energy could be regenerated through braking using the drive electric motors. Opportunities for engine downsizing are established and the losses are analyzed and compared for both machines. The results show 42% savings in the overall system losses especially the diesel engine and drivetrain.
对更高效、更可持续的工作机械的需求不断增长，促使制造商采用电动混合动力技术。电动动力系统有望节省大量燃料，但这与机器工作周期的性质有很大关系。本研究利用轮式装载机在短负载 Y 循环中测量到的实验数据，对已开发的串联式电动混合动力轮式装载机数学模型进行了验证。对所研究结构的效率和能耗进行了分析，并与使用柴油发动机和静液压传动装置的传统机器的能耗进行了比较。结果表明，使用所提出的串联式电动混合动力系统至少可减少 30% 的燃油消耗，柴油发动机的转速保持稳定，而瞬态负载则可通过电动动力系统得到缓解。模型还显示，通过使用驱动电机进行制动，可再生 20% 的驱动能量。确定了缩小发动机尺寸的机会，并对两种机器的损耗进行了分析和比较。结果表明，整个系统的损耗，尤其是柴油发动机和动力传动系统的损耗可节省 42%。
{"title":"Fuel Efficiency Analysis and Control of a Series Electric Hybrid\u0000 Compact Wheel Loader","authors":"Mohamed Allam, Orlando Fernandez, Matti Linjama","doi":"10.4271/02-17-02-0012","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/02-17-02-0012","url":null,"abstract":"The escalating demand for more efficient and sustainable working machines has\u0000 pushed manufacturers toward adopting electric hybrid technology. Electric\u0000 powertrains promise significant fuel savings, which are highly dependent on the\u0000 nature of the duty cycle of the machine. In this study, experimental data\u0000 measured from a wheel loader in a short-loading Y-cycle is used to exercise a\u0000 developed mathematical model of a series electric hybrid wheel loader. The\u0000 efficiency and energy consumption of the studied architecture are analyzed and\u0000 compared to the consumption of the measured conventional machine that uses a\u0000 diesel engine and a hydrostatic transmission. The results show at least 30%\u0000 reduction in fuel consumption by using the proposed series electric hybrid\u0000 powertrain, the diesel engine rotational speed is steady, and the transient\u0000 loads are mitigated by the electric powertrain. The model also shows that 20% of\u0000 drive energy could be regenerated through braking using the drive electric\u0000 motors. Opportunities for engine downsizing are established and the losses are\u0000 analyzed and compared for both machines. The results show 42% savings in the\u0000 overall system losses especially the diesel engine and drivetrain.","PeriodicalId":45281,"journal":{"name":"SAE International Journal of Commercial Vehicles","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2024-05-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141014688","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
An automatic collision avoidance control method integrating optimal four-wheel steering (4WS) and direct yaw-moment control (DYC) for autonomous vehicles on curved road is proposed in this study. Optimal four-wheel steering is used to track a predetermined trajectory, and DYC is adopted for vehicle stability. Two single lane change collision avoidance scenarios, i.e., a stationary obstacle in front and a moving obstacle at a lower speed in the same lane, are constructed to verify the proposed control method. The main contributions of this article include (1) a quintic polynomial lane change trajectory for collision avoidance on curved road is proposed and (2) four different kinds of control method for autonomous collision avoidance, namely 2WS, 2WS+DYC, 4WS, and 4WS+DYC, are compared. In the design of DYC controller, two different feedback control methods are adopted for comparison, i.e., sideslip angle feedback and yaw rate feedback. The simulation results demonstrate significant improvements in the path tracking performance and stability of the 4WS+DYC control system compared to other control systems. Furthermore, the performance of the DYC control system with yaw rate feedback outperforms that of the DYC control system with sideslip angle feedback.
{"title":"Integrated Four-Wheel Steering and Direct Yaw-Moment Control for\u0000 Autonomous Collision Avoidance on Curved Road","authors":"Fei Lai","doi":"10.4271/02-17-01-0007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/02-17-01-0007","url":null,"abstract":"An automatic collision avoidance control method integrating optimal four-wheel\u0000 steering (4WS) and direct yaw-moment control (DYC) for autonomous vehicles on\u0000 curved road is proposed in this study. Optimal four-wheel steering is used to\u0000 track a predetermined trajectory, and DYC is adopted for vehicle stability. Two\u0000 single lane change collision avoidance scenarios, i.e., a stationary obstacle in\u0000 front and a moving obstacle at a lower speed in the same lane, are constructed\u0000 to verify the proposed control method. The main contributions of this article\u0000 include (1) a quintic polynomial lane change trajectory for collision avoidance\u0000 on curved road is proposed and (2) four different kinds of control method for\u0000 autonomous collision avoidance, namely 2WS, 2WS+DYC, 4WS, and 4WS+DYC, are\u0000 compared. In the design of DYC controller, two different feedback control\u0000 methods are adopted for comparison, i.e., sideslip angle feedback and yaw rate\u0000 feedback. The simulation results demonstrate significant improvements in the\u0000 path tracking performance and stability of the 4WS+DYC control system compared\u0000 to other control systems. Furthermore, the performance of the DYC control system\u0000 with yaw rate feedback outperforms that of the DYC control system with sideslip\u0000 angle feedback.","PeriodicalId":45281,"journal":{"name":"SAE International Journal of Commercial Vehicles","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2024-01-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139597283","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This article presents the methodical development of a subframe for a novel on-the-road-modular vehicle concept, which was developed for the U-Shift project. The subframe serves as the basis for a modular chassis. This chassis offers the possibility to exchange chassis components by the operator, which means after completion by the manufacturer, and thus to adapt the vehicle to different purposes. According to the applied methodology, the relevant wheel loads are determined and a geometric reference model is created. By defining the relevant load cases, the forces acting on the subframe, and thus the physical boundary conditions, can be determined from the wheel loads. In addition to the wheel loads and the geometric boundary conditions, no other vehicle parameters are required for the development of the subframe. The results of the topology optimization are used to identify areas of the geometric reference model that are not exposed to high loads. Based on the results of the topology optimization, a suitable combination of manufacturing processes and suitable materials can also be determined. After the basic topology has been determined, a welded construction is derived from square tubes and plates. Subsequently, excess stresses at critical points are identified in simulation and analysis processes, and constructive changes are made to reduce them. Through validation by simulation of the relevant load cases, a proof of compliance with the physical boundary conditions can be provided. The actually manufactured subframe is presented, and the potential of the modular construction for the development of a chassis modular kit is explained.
{"title":"Methodical Design of a Subframe for a Novel Modular Chassis Concept\u0000 without Knowledge of Final Vehicle Parameters","authors":"Fabian Weitz, Michael Frey, F. Gauterin","doi":"10.4271/02-17-01-0006","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/02-17-01-0006","url":null,"abstract":"This article presents the methodical development of a subframe for a novel\u0000 on-the-road-modular vehicle concept, which was developed for the U-Shift\u0000 project. The subframe serves as the basis for a modular chassis. This chassis\u0000 offers the possibility to exchange chassis components by the operator, which\u0000 means after completion by the manufacturer, and thus to adapt the vehicle to\u0000 different purposes. According to the applied methodology, the relevant wheel\u0000 loads are determined and a geometric reference model is created. By defining the\u0000 relevant load cases, the forces acting on the subframe, and thus the physical\u0000 boundary conditions, can be determined from the wheel loads. In addition to the\u0000 wheel loads and the geometric boundary conditions, no other vehicle parameters\u0000 are required for the development of the subframe. The results of the topology\u0000 optimization are used to identify areas of the geometric reference model that\u0000 are not exposed to high loads. Based on the results of the topology\u0000 optimization, a suitable combination of manufacturing processes and suitable\u0000 materials can also be determined. After the basic topology has been determined,\u0000 a welded construction is derived from square tubes and plates. Subsequently,\u0000 excess stresses at critical points are identified in simulation and analysis\u0000 processes, and constructive changes are made to reduce them. Through validation\u0000 by simulation of the relevant load cases, a proof of compliance with the\u0000 physical boundary conditions can be provided. The actually manufactured subframe\u0000 is presented, and the potential of the modular construction for the development\u0000 of a chassis modular kit is explained.","PeriodicalId":45281,"journal":{"name":"SAE International Journal of Commercial Vehicles","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2024-01-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139607109","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
In view of the combustion efficiency and emission performance, various new clean combustion modes put forward higher requirements for the performance of the fuel injection system, and the cavitating two-phase flow characteristics in the injector nozzle have a significant impact on the spray atomization and combustion performance. This article comprehensively discusses and summarizes the factors that affect cavitation and the effectiveness of cavitation, and presents the research status and existent problems under each factor. Among them, viscosity factors are a hot research topic that researchers are passionate about, and physical properties factors still have the value of further in-depth research. However, the importance of material surface factors ranks last since the nozzle material was determined. Establishing a more comprehensive cavitation–atomization model considering various factors is the focus of research on cavitation phenomena. The improved model can ultimately serve high combustion efficiency and great emission performance.
{"title":"A Review of Cavitation Phenomenon and Its Influence on the Spray\u0000 Atomization in Diesel Injector Nozzles","authors":"Tianyi Cao, Puyu Qu","doi":"10.4271/02-17-01-0005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/02-17-01-0005","url":null,"abstract":"In view of the combustion efficiency and emission performance, various new clean\u0000 combustion modes put forward higher requirements for the performance of the fuel\u0000 injection system, and the cavitating two-phase flow characteristics in the\u0000 injector nozzle have a significant impact on the spray atomization and\u0000 combustion performance. This article comprehensively discusses and summarizes\u0000 the factors that affect cavitation and the effectiveness of cavitation, and\u0000 presents the research status and existent problems under each factor. Among\u0000 them, viscosity factors are a hot research topic that researchers are passionate\u0000 about, and physical properties factors still have the value of further in-depth\u0000 research. However, the importance of material surface factors ranks last since\u0000 the nozzle material was determined. Establishing a more comprehensive\u0000 cavitation–atomization model considering various factors is the focus of\u0000 research on cavitation phenomena. The improved model can ultimately serve high\u0000 combustion efficiency and great emission performance.","PeriodicalId":45281,"journal":{"name":"SAE International Journal of Commercial Vehicles","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2023-12-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139000001","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Lateral control is an essential part of driverless mining truck systems. However, the considerable steering lag and poor tracking accuracy limit the development of unmanned mining. In this article, a dynamic preview distance was designed to resist the steering lag. Then the vehicle–road states, which described the real-time lateral and heading errors between the vehicle and the target road, was defined to describe the control strategy more efficiently. In order to trade off the tracking accuracy and stability, the Takagi–Sugeno (TS) fuzzy method was used to adjust the weight matrix of the linear quadratic regulator (LQR) for different vehicle–road states. Based on the actual mine production environment and the TR100 mining truck, experimental results show that the TS-LQR algorithm performed much better than the pure pursuit algorithm.
{"title":"Lateral Control for Driverless Mining Trucks with the Consideration\u0000 of Steering Lag and Vehicle–Road States","authors":"Qiushi Chen, Guangqiang Wu, Qi Zeng, Jianzhuang Zong","doi":"10.4271/02-17-01-0004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/02-17-01-0004","url":null,"abstract":"Lateral control is an essential part of driverless mining truck systems. However,\u0000 the considerable steering lag and poor tracking accuracy limit the development\u0000 of unmanned mining. In this article, a dynamic preview distance was designed to\u0000 resist the steering lag. Then the vehicle–road states, which described the\u0000 real-time lateral and heading errors between the vehicle and the target road,\u0000 was defined to describe the control strategy more efficiently. In order to trade\u0000 off the tracking accuracy and stability, the Takagi–Sugeno (TS) fuzzy method was\u0000 used to adjust the weight matrix of the linear quadratic regulator (LQR) for\u0000 different vehicle–road states. Based on the actual mine production environment\u0000 and the TR100 mining truck, experimental results show that the TS-LQR algorithm\u0000 performed much better than the pure pursuit algorithm.","PeriodicalId":45281,"journal":{"name":"SAE International Journal of Commercial Vehicles","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2023-12-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"138971738","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Olivier Duhamel, Antoine Faivre, Jean-Sébastien Plante
Vehicles equipped with rubber track systems feature a high level of performance but are challenging to design due to the complex components involved and the large number of degrees of freedom, thus raising the need to develop validated numerical simulation tools. In this article, a multibody dynamics (MBD) model of a continuous rubber track system developed in Part 1 is compared with extensive experimental data to evaluate the model accuracy over a wide range of operating conditions (tractor speed and rear axle load). The experiment consists of crossing an instrumented bump-shaped obstacle with a tractor equipped with a pair of rubber track systems on the rear axle. Experimental responses are synchronized with simulation results using a cross-correlation approach. The vertical and longitudinal maximum forces predicted by the model, respectively, show average relative errors of 34% and 39% compared to experimental data (1–16 km/h). In both cases, the average relative error is lower for tractor speed from 1 to 7 km/h, namely 20% and 35%. The model and experimental amplitudes spectra of the force signals are compared using the coefficient of determination r2. In the 1 to 7 km/h tractor speed range, the average vertical and longitudinal coefficients of determination are, respectively, 0.83 and 0.42. The coefficients, respectively, reduce to 0.27 and 0.14 for speeds over 7 km/h. In summary, the model can predict the maximum vertical and longitudinal forces in addition to the amplitude spectrum of those signals for operating conditions up to 7 km/h, regardless of the rear axle load, with accuracy acceptable for many applications, such as load case determination for preliminary structural design. Several factors affecting the accuracy of the model at higher tractor speed are identified for future work including suspension creeping, suspension compression characterization at high strain rates, and temperature dependence of material properties.
{"title":"Multibody Dynamics Modeling of a Continuous Rubber Track System. Part\u0000 2—Experimental Evaluation of Load Prediction","authors":"Olivier Duhamel, Antoine Faivre, Jean-Sébastien Plante","doi":"10.4271/02-17-01-0003","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/02-17-01-0003","url":null,"abstract":"Vehicles equipped with rubber track systems feature a high level of performance\u0000 but are challenging to design due to the complex components involved and the\u0000 large number of degrees of freedom, thus raising the need to develop validated\u0000 numerical simulation tools.\u0000\u0000 \u0000In this article, a multibody dynamics (MBD) model of a continuous rubber track\u0000 system developed in Part 1 is compared with extensive experimental data to\u0000 evaluate the model accuracy over a wide range of operating conditions (tractor\u0000 speed and rear axle load). The experiment consists of crossing an instrumented\u0000 bump-shaped obstacle with a tractor equipped with a pair of rubber track systems\u0000 on the rear axle. Experimental responses are synchronized with simulation\u0000 results using a cross-correlation approach.\u0000\u0000 \u0000The vertical and longitudinal maximum forces predicted by the model,\u0000 respectively, show average relative errors of 34% and 39% compared to\u0000 experimental data (1–16 km/h). In both cases, the average relative error is\u0000 lower for tractor speed from 1 to 7 km/h, namely 20% and 35%. The model and\u0000 experimental amplitudes spectra of the force signals are compared using the\u0000 coefficient of determination r2. In the 1 to 7 km/h\u0000 tractor speed range, the average vertical and longitudinal coefficients of\u0000 determination are, respectively, 0.83 and 0.42. The coefficients, respectively,\u0000 reduce to 0.27 and 0.14 for speeds over 7 km/h.\u0000\u0000 \u0000In summary, the model can predict the maximum vertical and longitudinal forces in\u0000 addition to the amplitude spectrum of those signals for operating conditions up\u0000 to 7 km/h, regardless of the rear axle load, with accuracy acceptable for many\u0000 applications, such as load case determination for preliminary structural design.\u0000 Several factors affecting the accuracy of the model at higher tractor speed are\u0000 identified for future work including suspension creeping, suspension compression\u0000 characterization at high strain rates, and temperature dependence of material\u0000 properties.","PeriodicalId":45281,"journal":{"name":"SAE International Journal of Commercial Vehicles","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2023-12-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"138593415","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Antoine Faivre, Olivier Duhamel, Masoud Hemmatian, Jean-Sébastien Plante
Continuous rubber track systems for farming applications are typically designed using multiple iterations on full-scale physical prototypes which is costly and time consuming. The development of numerical design tools could speed up the design process and reduce development costs while improving product performance. In this article, a rigid multibody dynamics (MBD) model of a continuous rubber track system is presented. This article is the first part of a two-part study: Part 1 focuses on the model description and part 2 describes the experimental evaluation of the MBD model. The modeling methodology is based on a track discretization as a set of rigid body elements interconnected by 6 degrees-of-freedom bushing joints. The mathematical formalism and experimental characterization of all critical subsystems such as the roller wheels, tensioner, suspensions, and contact models are also presented. Several simulation results are presented to illustrate the capability of MBD models in design activities to rapidly evaluate new concepts as a result of the relative short-solving time of the model (approximately 3 h). The MBD model is shown to be a powerful design tool to provide input boundary conditions for structural analysis or as a design space explorer and optimization tool.
{"title":"Multibody Dynamics Modeling of a Continuous Rubber Track System: Part\u0000 1—Model Description","authors":"Antoine Faivre, Olivier Duhamel, Masoud Hemmatian, Jean-Sébastien Plante","doi":"10.4271/02-17-01-0002","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/02-17-01-0002","url":null,"abstract":"Continuous rubber track systems for farming applications are typically designed\u0000 using multiple iterations on full-scale physical prototypes which is costly and\u0000 time consuming. The development of numerical design tools could speed up the\u0000 design process and reduce development costs while improving product performance.\u0000 In this article, a rigid multibody dynamics (MBD) model of a continuous rubber\u0000 track system is presented. This article is the first part of a two-part study:\u0000 Part 1 focuses on the model description and part 2 describes the experimental\u0000 evaluation of the MBD model. The modeling methodology is based on a track\u0000 discretization as a set of rigid body elements interconnected by 6\u0000 degrees-of-freedom bushing joints. The mathematical formalism and experimental\u0000 characterization of all critical subsystems such as the roller wheels,\u0000 tensioner, suspensions, and contact models are also presented. Several\u0000 simulation results are presented to illustrate the capability of MBD models in\u0000 design activities to rapidly evaluate new concepts as a result of the relative\u0000 short-solving time of the model (approximately 3 h). The MBD model is shown to\u0000 be a powerful design tool to provide input boundary conditions for structural\u0000 analysis or as a design space explorer and optimization tool.","PeriodicalId":45281,"journal":{"name":"SAE International Journal of Commercial Vehicles","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.5,"publicationDate":"2023-12-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"138596880","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Chuanwei Zhang, Xiaohe Jin, Dawei Zhao, Jinpeng Liu
This article takes the wet multi-disc brake used in mining Isuzu 600P as the research object, establishes a simplified three-dimensional model of its key components through SOLIDWORKS and imports it into ANSYS Workbench to establish the flow field and structure field model of the wet brake. Based on the fluid–solid coupling, the finite element simulation of the temperature field and stress field of the friction pair of the wet brake under different braking pressures, braking initial speeds, and fluid viscosities was carried out, and then the position changes of the friction pairs at high temperature hot spots and high stress points were analyzed to determine the stability of its friction performance. Finally, by comparing the temperature change curves of the same point during the braking process under different braking conditions, the validity of the finite element analysis results is verified. The results show that the flow field pressure inside the wet brake is opposite to the flow field velocity, the initial braking velocity is the most influential factor on the friction performance of the friction pair, affected by the fluid, the maximum equivalent stress of the groove between the core plates is the same as the braking force. Pressure, braking initial speed, and fluid viscosity are proportional.
{"title":"Friction Performance Analysis of Mine Wet Multi-Disc Brake","authors":"Chuanwei Zhang, Xiaohe Jin, Dawei Zhao, Jinpeng Liu","doi":"10.4271/02-17-01-0001","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.4271/02-17-01-0001","url":null,"abstract":"<div>This article takes the wet multi-disc brake used in mining Isuzu 600P as the research object, establishes a simplified three-dimensional model of its key components through SOLIDWORKS and imports it into ANSYS Workbench to establish the flow field and structure field model of the wet brake. Based on the fluid–solid coupling, the finite element simulation of the temperature field and stress field of the friction pair of the wet brake under different braking pressures, braking initial speeds, and fluid viscosities was carried out, and then the position changes of the friction pairs at high temperature hot spots and high stress points were analyzed to determine the stability of its friction performance. Finally, by comparing the temperature change curves of the same point during the braking process under different braking conditions, the validity of the finite element analysis results is verified. The results show that the flow field pressure inside the wet brake is opposite to the flow field velocity, the initial braking velocity is the most influential factor on the friction performance of the friction pair, affected by the fluid, the maximum equivalent stress of the groove between the core plates is the same as the braking force. Pressure, braking initial speed, and fluid viscosity are proportional.</div>","PeriodicalId":45281,"journal":{"name":"SAE International Journal of Commercial Vehicles","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2023-10-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"136232400","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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