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LIN volume 58 issue 3 Cover and Front matter LIN第58卷第3期封面和封面
IF 1.1 2区 文学 0 LANGUAGE & LINGUISTICS Pub Date : 2022-07-19 DOI: 10.1017/s0022226722000305
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引用次数: 0
LIN volume 58 issue 3 Cover and Back matter LIN第58卷第3期封面和封底
IF 1.1 2区 文学 0 LANGUAGE & LINGUISTICS Pub Date : 2022-07-19 DOI: 10.1017/s0022226722000317
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引用次数: 0
The interaction of discourse markers and prosody in rhetorical questions in German 德语修辞问题中话语标记与韵律的互动
IF 1.1 2区 文学 0 LANGUAGE & LINGUISTICS Pub Date : 2022-07-13 DOI: 10.1017/s0022226722000299
Nicole Dehé, Daniela Wochner, Marieke Einfeldt
Recent research has shown that rhetorical questions (RQs) have certain prosodic characteristics in terms of voice quality, tempo, and intonation, which distinguish them from genuine, information-seeking questions (ISQs). This paper focuses on the interaction between prosodic cues to rhetorical meaning on the one hand, and lexical and morpho-syntactic means, on the other, in German. The production experiment reported on here addresses three research questions, in short: (i) do speakers prefer a specific syntactic construction for an RQ, (ii) do they make use of specific lexical and morpho-syntactic means to signal rhetorical meaning, and (iii) what is the interaction between those means and prosodic cues. The answers are: (i) yes (wh-questions), (ii) yes (especially discourse markers (DiPs)), and (iii) we find an additive effect enforcing the rhetorical message. When lexical (or morpho-syntactic) cues to rhetorical meaning are used, we do not observe a reduction in or lack of prosodic means at the same time. For example, when a DiP is present, an RQ will still have a typical nuclear accent and edge tone, i.e., cues are used in an additive, rather than an exclusive way. There are, however, RQs that are marked only in the prosody, without any lexical or morpho-syntactic cues present.
最近的研究表明,反问句(RQs)在音质、节奏和语调方面具有一定的韵律特征,这将它们与真正的信息寻求型问题(ISQs)区别开来。本文主要研究德语中韵律线索与修辞意义之间的相互作用,以及词汇和形态句法手段之间的相互作用。这里报告的生成实验解决了三个研究问题,简而言之:(i)说话者是否更喜欢特定的RQ句法结构,(ii)他们是否使用特定的词汇和形态句法手段来表达修辞意义,(iii)这些手段与韵律线索之间的相互作用是什么。答案是:(i)是(wh-questions), (ii)是(尤其是话语标记(dip)),以及(iii)我们发现了强化修辞信息的附加效应。当使用修辞意义的词汇(或形态句法)线索时,我们不会同时观察到韵律意义的减少或缺乏。例如,当DiP存在时,RQ仍将具有典型的核重音和边缘音,即线索以添加的方式使用,而不是以排他的方式使用。然而,有些rq只在韵律中被标记,没有任何词汇或形态句法线索。
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引用次数: 1
Vera Lee-Schoenfeld & Dennis Ott (eds.), Parameters of predicate fronting (Oxford Studies in Comparative Syntax). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021. Pp. vii + 225. Vera Lee Schoenfeld和Dennis Ott(编辑),谓语前置参数(牛津比较句法研究)。牛津:牛津大学出版社,2021年。第vii页+225。
IF 1.1 2区 文学 0 LANGUAGE & LINGUISTICS Pub Date : 2022-06-17 DOI: 10.1017/S0022226722000263
Matthew Pearson
Douglas A. Kibbee (eds.), New analyses in Romance linguistics: Selected papers from the XVIII Linguistic Symposium on Romance Languages, 143–170. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Bossong, Georg. 1998. Le marquage différentiel de l’objet dans les langues d’Europe. In Jack Feuillet (ed.), Actance et valence dans les langues de l’Europe, 193–258. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Comrie, Bernard. 1989. Language universals and linguistic typology, 2nd edn. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Jaeggli, Osvaldo. 1982. Topics in Romance syntax. Dordrecht: Foris. Onea, Edgar&AlexandruMardale. 2020. From topic to object: Grammaticalization of differential object marking in Romanian. Canadian Journal of Linguistics 65.3, 350–392. Seržant, Ilja A. & Alena Witzlack-Makarevich (eds.). 2018. Diachrony of differential argument marking. Berlin: Language Science Press.
道格拉斯A.基比(编),新的分析在罗曼语语言学:选自第十八届罗曼语语言学研讨会论文,143-170。阿姆斯特丹:约翰·本杰明。乔治亚州博松,1998。Le marquage diffsamrentiel de l ' object dans les languages d 'Europe。见Jack Feuillet(编),《欧洲语言的发展与价值》,1993 - 258。柏林:穆顿·德·格吕特。伯纳德·科姆里1989。语言共性和语言类型学,第2版。牛津:巴兹尔·布莱克威尔。1982年,奥斯瓦尔多。罗曼史语法中的主题。多德雷赫特:市中心。Onea Edgar&AlexandruMardale。2020. 从主题到对象:罗马尼亚语中不同对象标记的语法化。中国语言学杂志(6),35 - 39。Seržant, Ilja A. & Alena Witzlack-Makarevich(编)。2018. 微分参数标记的历时性。柏林:语言科学出版社。
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引用次数: 0
Alqassas Ahmad, A unified theory of polarity sensitivity: Comparative syntax of Arabic. New York: Oxford University Press, 2021. Pp. x + 246. 极性敏感性的统一理论:阿拉伯语的比较句法。纽约:牛津大学出版社,2021。页x + 246。
IF 1.1 2区 文学 0 LANGUAGE & LINGUISTICS Pub Date : 2022-06-15 DOI: 10.1017/S0022226722000238
Eman Al Khalaf
Negative sensitive items (NSIs) have been the subject of much discussion in the syntactic as well as semantic literature for at least the last forty years since the publication of Ladusaw’s (1980) seminal work. The subject particularly is of great significance as it has consequences on topics including the syntactic and semantic composition of indefinites, the nature and locus of negation, how semantic domains are further restricted by syntactic constraints (i.e. the division of labor between syntax and semantics in licensing), and the domain of application of Agree and Merge as primitive syntactic operations, to mention a few. This book contributes to the growing body of literature on the issue by presenting interesting and new empirical facts from an understudied language, namely Arabic. One of the challenges to any researcher working on the topic of NSIs in Arabic is the scarcity of data, especially because Arabic encompasses many varieties so different that they are often described as different languages. Although there is much work on NSIs in Romance and other Indo-European languages, one can hardly find any serious work that presents the landscape of NSIs in (the major varieties of) Arabic. Chapter 2, ‘Classification of PSIs and their lexical categories’, walks the reader through all categories of NSIs from different varieties of Arabic, including Egyptian, Moroccan, Jordanian, Qatari, and Standard. As with other languages, Arabic has two major classes of NSIs: negative polarity items (NPIs) and negative indefinites (NIs). The latter can also include elements that can be construed as negative concord items (NCIs). Perhaps of great interest is the fact that Arabic exhibits elements that contribute a negative interpretation in absence of overt negation, such as NCIs in preverbal position (Wala ħada idʒa ‘No one came.’) and NCIs in fragment answers (A:Miin idʒa? ‘Who came?’ B:Wala ħada! ‘No one!’). These elements pose a challenge to previous work and motivate a new analysis that departs from restricting licensing to c-command in the domain of a negative marker (NM). A point of strength of the empirical part of this monograph is the richness of data sources. In particular, Alqassas hinges on introspection for the data drawn from his own dialect (Jordanian), cited examples from the other colloquial varieties, and corpus data for the standard variety (Qur’an corpus). The issue of reliability of data
自Ladusaw(1980)的开创性著作发表以来,至少在过去的四十年里,负敏感项一直是句法和语义文献中讨论的主题。该主题尤其具有重要意义,因为它对以下主题产生了影响:不确定性的句法和语义组成、否定的性质和位置、语义域如何进一步受到句法约束的限制(即许可中句法和语义之间的分工),以及同意和合并作为原始句法操作的应用领域。这本书从一种研究不足的语言,即阿拉伯语,呈现了有趣的、新的经验事实,为越来越多的关于这个问题的文献做出了贡献。任何研究阿拉伯语NSI主题的研究人员都面临的挑战之一是数据的稀缺,尤其是因为阿拉伯语包含许多不同的变体,以至于它们经常被描述为不同的语言。尽管在罗曼语和其他印欧语言中有很多关于NSI的工作,但很难找到任何严肃的工作来展示阿拉伯语(主要变体)中NSI的面貌。第2章,“PSIs的分类及其词汇类别”,带领读者浏览来自不同阿拉伯语变体的NSI的所有类别,包括埃及语、摩洛哥语、约旦语、卡塔尔语和标准语。与其他语言一样,阿拉伯语有两大类NSI:负极性项(NPI)和负不确定性项(NI)。后者还可以包括可以被解释为负一致项目(NCI)的元素。也许令人感兴趣的是,阿拉伯语在没有公开否定的情况下表现出有助于负面解释的元素,例如前语位置的NCI(Walaħada idʒa“没有人来过”)和片段回答中的NCI。这些要素对以前的工作提出了挑战,并激发了一种新的分析,这种分析偏离了在阴性标记(NM)领域限制c命令的许可。这本专著经验部分的一个优势是数据来源的丰富性。特别是,Alqassas依赖于对从他自己的方言(约旦语)中提取的数据的内省,引用了其他口语变体的例子,以及标准变体的语料库数据(古兰经语料库)。数据可靠性问题
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引用次数: 0
Cedric Boeckx, Reflections on language evolution: From minimalism to pluralism (Conceptual Foundations of Language Science 6). Berlin: Language Science Press, 2021. Pp. 76. Cedric Boeckx,语言进化的反思:从极简主义到多元主义(语言科学的概念基础6).柏林:语言科学出版社,2021。76页。
IF 1.1 2区 文学 0 LANGUAGE & LINGUISTICS Pub Date : 2022-06-13 DOI: 10.1017/S0022226722000287
Elliot Murphy
In Reflections on Language Evolution (ROLE), Cedric Boeckx targets ‘Darwin’s problem’, or the problem of how language evolved. He claims natural language syntax evolved gradually, not suddenly. ROLE continues Boeckx’s transition away from generative grammar and toward what he considers ‘pluralism’, implying that the minimalist program is incompatible with inter-disciplinary perspectives. To address Darwin’s problem, Boeckx argues that we need to boil down the bare essentials of linguistics into a format interpretable and usable by other fields. Otherwise, concepts from linguistics ‘won’t get past customs’ (3). The program that ROLE seems most sympathetic to appears to be the work of Simon Kirby and collaborators. The iterated learning paradigm examines artificial grammar processing to unearth generic biases that drive the learning process. Boeckx notes that ‘critics are quick to point out that this line of work implements the cognitive biases by brute force, and does not show how these evolve organically’ (28). He deems this line of criticism ‘unfair’ – yet not inaccurate. Boeckx’s preference is to think of language as ‘a collection of (generic) cognitive biases’ (29). He does not provide much discussion of what these biases are, however: ‘I suspect there are likely to be very many, associated with general notions like memory, attention, salience, etc.’ (29). Boeckx argues that components of language ‘that don’t manipulate (parts of) sentences’ and are fundamentally lower-level computations seem ‘ideally suited for fruitful comparisons’ with other species (3). Boeckx’s previous book was entitled Elementary Syntactic Structures (Boeckx 2014), a reference to Chomsky (1957). His new book is a reference to Chomsky (1975), Reflections on Language. We might expect that his next book will explore ‘Paleoanthropological Aspects of the Theory of Syntax’, although Boeckx never explicitly renounces his earlier minimalist work – but it seems implicit. ROLE provides no motivations for why any specificminimalist analysis of linguistic phenomena should be rejected, which until recently he appears to have endorsed (Murphy 2015). Boeckx seems to agree with generativists on the uniqueness of the core trait (unbounded hierarchical recursion)
Cedric Boeckx在《语言进化反思》一书中针对“达尔文问题”,即语言如何进化的问题。他声称自然语言语法是逐渐演变的,而不是突然演变的。ROLE延续了Boeckx从生成语法向他所认为的“多元主义”的转变,暗示极简主义程序与跨学科视角不兼容。为了解决达尔文的问题,Boeckx认为,我们需要将语言学的基本要素归结为一种可供其他领域解释和使用的格式。否则,语言学中的概念就不会过时。ROLE似乎最同情的节目似乎是Simon Kirby和合作者的作品。迭代学习范式考察了人工语法处理,以挖掘驱动学习过程的一般偏见。Boeckx指出,“批评者很快指出,这一系列工作通过暴力实现了认知偏见,并没有显示这些偏见是如何有机进化的”(28)。他认为这种批评是“不公平的”,但并非不准确。Boeckx的偏好是将语言视为“(通用的)认知偏见的集合”(29)。然而,他没有提供太多关于这些偏见是什么的讨论:“我怀疑可能有很多偏见,与记忆、注意力、显著性等一般概念有关。”(29)。Boeckx认为,语言中“不操纵(部分)句子”的成分,从根本上来说是较低级别的计算,似乎“非常适合与其他物种进行富有成效的比较”(3)。Boeckx的前一本书名为《基本句法结构》(Boeckx 2014),参考了乔姆斯基(1957)。他的新书参考了乔姆斯基(1975)的《语言反思》。我们可能会期待他的下一本书将探讨“句法理论的古人类学方面”,尽管Boeckx从未明确放弃他早期的极简主义作品,但这似乎是隐含的。ROLE没有提供任何动机来解释为什么任何对语言现象的特定极简主义分析都应该被拒绝,直到最近他似乎还支持这一点(Murphy 2015)。Boeckx似乎同意生成论者关于核心特征的唯一性(无界层次递归)
{"title":"Cedric Boeckx, Reflections on language evolution: From minimalism to pluralism (Conceptual Foundations of Language Science 6). Berlin: Language Science Press, 2021. Pp. 76.","authors":"Elliot Murphy","doi":"10.1017/S0022226722000287","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022226722000287","url":null,"abstract":"In Reflections on Language Evolution (ROLE), Cedric Boeckx targets ‘Darwin’s problem’, or the problem of how language evolved. He claims natural language syntax evolved gradually, not suddenly. ROLE continues Boeckx’s transition away from generative grammar and toward what he considers ‘pluralism’, implying that the minimalist program is incompatible with inter-disciplinary perspectives. To address Darwin’s problem, Boeckx argues that we need to boil down the bare essentials of linguistics into a format interpretable and usable by other fields. Otherwise, concepts from linguistics ‘won’t get past customs’ (3). The program that ROLE seems most sympathetic to appears to be the work of Simon Kirby and collaborators. The iterated learning paradigm examines artificial grammar processing to unearth generic biases that drive the learning process. Boeckx notes that ‘critics are quick to point out that this line of work implements the cognitive biases by brute force, and does not show how these evolve organically’ (28). He deems this line of criticism ‘unfair’ – yet not inaccurate. Boeckx’s preference is to think of language as ‘a collection of (generic) cognitive biases’ (29). He does not provide much discussion of what these biases are, however: ‘I suspect there are likely to be very many, associated with general notions like memory, attention, salience, etc.’ (29). Boeckx argues that components of language ‘that don’t manipulate (parts of) sentences’ and are fundamentally lower-level computations seem ‘ideally suited for fruitful comparisons’ with other species (3). Boeckx’s previous book was entitled Elementary Syntactic Structures (Boeckx 2014), a reference to Chomsky (1957). His new book is a reference to Chomsky (1975), Reflections on Language. We might expect that his next book will explore ‘Paleoanthropological Aspects of the Theory of Syntax’, although Boeckx never explicitly renounces his earlier minimalist work – but it seems implicit. ROLE provides no motivations for why any specificminimalist analysis of linguistic phenomena should be rejected, which until recently he appears to have endorsed (Murphy 2015). Boeckx seems to agree with generativists on the uniqueness of the core trait (unbounded hierarchical recursion)","PeriodicalId":47027,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Linguistics","volume":"58 1","pages":"907 - 911"},"PeriodicalIF":1.1,"publicationDate":"2022-06-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"46370141","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"文学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
引用次数: 0
Condition C in German A′-movement: Tackling challenges in experimental research on reconstruction 德国A’-运动的条件C:重构实验研究中的挑战
IF 1.1 2区 文学 0 LANGUAGE & LINGUISTICS Pub Date : 2022-06-09 DOI: 10.1017/S0022226722000214
Martin Salzmann, Marta Wierzba, Doreen Georgi
In recent experimental work, arguments for or against Condition C reconstruction in A′-movement have been based on low/high availability of coreference in sentences with and without A′-movement. We argue that this reasoning is problematic: It involves arbitrary thresholds, and the results are potentially confounded by the different surface orders of the compared structures and non-syntactic factors. We present three experiments with designs that do not require defining thresholds of ‘low’ or ‘high’ coreference values. Instead, we focus on grammatical contrasts (wh-movement vs. relativization, subject vs. object wh-movement) and aim to identify and reduce confounds. The results show that reconstruction for A′-movement of DPs is not very robust in German, contra previous findings. Our results are compatible with the view that the surface order and non-syntactic factors (e.g. plausibility, referential accessibility of an R-expression) heavily influence coreference possibilities. Thus, the data argue against a theory that includes both reconstruction and a hard Condition C constraint. There is a residual contrast between sentences with subject/object movement, which is compatible with an account without reconstruction (and an additional non-syntactic factor) or an account with reconstruction (and a soft Condition C constraint).
在最近的实验工作中,支持或反对A′-运动中条件C重建的论点都是基于有和没有A′-动作的句子中共指的低/高可用性。我们认为这种推理是有问题的:它涉及任意的阈值,结果可能会被比较结构和非句法因素的不同表面顺序所混淆。我们提出了三个实验,其设计不需要定义“低”或“高”共指数值的阈值。相反,我们关注语法对比(wh运动与相对化,主语与宾语wh运动),旨在识别和减少混淆。结果表明,与先前的研究结果相反,在德语中,对DPs的A′-运动的重建不是很稳健。我们的结果与表面顺序和非句法因素(如R表达的合理性、指称可及性)严重影响共指可能性的观点一致。因此,这些数据反对同时包括重建和硬条件C约束的理论。在有主语/宾语运动的句子之间存在残余对比,这与没有重构的叙述(和额外的非句法因素)或有重构的记述(和软条件C约束)相兼容。
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引用次数: 0
All TRs are not created equal: L1 and L2 perception of English cluster affrication 并非所有TR都是生而平等的:L1和L2对英语簇塞擦音的感知
IF 1.1 2区 文学 0 LANGUAGE & LINGUISTICS Pub Date : 2022-06-08 DOI: 10.1017/S0022226722000275
G. Schwartz
This paper describes a perception experiment with L1 Polish and L1 English listeners on the affrication of initial English /tr/ and /dr/ (TR) consonant clusters. The goal was to test phonological predictions formulated within the Onset Prominence (OP) framework. OP offers two distinct structural configurations for representing rising sonority onset clusters. One predicts synchronous cluster articulation in English, giving rise to affrication, while the other predicts asynchronous cluster articulation in Polish. Two groups of listeners performed a two-alternative forced choice identification task on stimuli that included affricated clusters, unaffricated clusters, affricates, and CəC-initial words. For L1 English listeners, the unaffricated cluster-initial items induced the slowest responses. For L1 Polish listeners, the lack of affrication facilitated cluster identification, while the CəC-initial words induced the slowed responses. The results suggest cross-language interaction by which Polish listeners equate L1 unaffricated clusters with L2 CəC-initial words, in accordance with the OP proposal.
本文对母语波兰语和母语英语的听者进行了一项关于英语/tr/和/dr/ (tr)辅音集群发音的感知实验。目的是测试在开始突出(OP)框架内制定的语音预测。OP提供了两种不同的结构配置来表示上升的声音开始集群。其中一个预测了英语中的同步集群发音,从而导致词缀,而另一个预测了波兰语中的异步集群发音。两组听众对刺激物进行了两种选择的强迫选择识别任务,刺激物包括累加音节、非累加音节、累加音节和C / C开头的单词。对于母语英语的听者来说,未发音的聚类初始词引起的反应最慢。对于母语波兰语的听者来说,缺少词形有助于聚类识别,而以C / C开头的单词则导致反应变慢。结果表明,波兰语听众通过跨语言互动,将母语中不受影响的词与L2中以C / C开头的词等同起来,这与OP的建议一致。
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引用次数: 1
Aggressively non-D-linked construction and ellipsis: A Direct Interpretation approach 攻击性非D连接结构与省略:一种直接解释方法
IF 1.1 2区 文学 0 LANGUAGE & LINGUISTICS Pub Date : 2022-06-03 DOI: 10.1017/S0022226722000226
Jungsoo Kim, Jong-Bok Kim
The so-called aggressively non-D-linked construction (ANDC) involving wh-the-hell phrases like what the hell is of empirical and theoretical interest due to its complex morphosyntactic and semantic/pragmatic properties. This paper focuses on the construction in general as well as in ellipsis phenomena. We first explore its grammatical properties on the basis of attested corpus data and show that the construction can occur more widely in elliptical constructions than suggested by previous literature. We then suggest that the licensing conditions of the ANDC in ellipsis are not solely syntax-based but due to tight interactions among a variety of grammatical components such as morphosyntax, semantics, and discourse/pragmatics. We also argue that the authentic uses of the construction favor a Direct Interpretation (DI) approach that can account for its uses in a variety of environments.
由于其复杂的形态句法和语义/语用特性,所谓的攻击性非D连接结构(ANDC)涉及地狱短语,如地狱,具有经验和理论意义。本文主要研究结构中的一般现象以及省略现象。我们首先在已证实的语料库数据的基础上探讨了它的语法特性,并表明这种结构在省略结构中的出现范围比以前的文献所建议的更广。然后,我们认为省略中ANDC的许可条件不仅仅是基于语法的,而是由于形态语法、语义和语篇/语用学等多种语法成分之间的紧密互动。我们还认为,结构的真实用途有利于直接解释(DI)方法,该方法可以解释其在各种环境中的用途。
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引用次数: 0
Alessandro Capone, Pragmatics and philosophy: Connections and ramifications (Perspectives in Pragmatics, Philosophy & Psychology 22). Cham: Springer, 2019. Pp. iv + 311. 亚历山德罗·卡彭,《语用学与哲学:联系与分支》(《语用学视角》,哲学与心理学22期)。Cham: b施普林格,2019。页iv + 311。
IF 1.1 2区 文学 0 LANGUAGE & LINGUISTICS Pub Date : 2022-06-01 DOI: 10.1017/S002222672200024X
Gaetano Fiorin
Benjamins. Giannakidou, Anastasia. 2011. Negative and positive polarity items. In Klaus von Heusinger, Claudia Maienborn & Paul Portner (eds.), Semantics: An international handbook of natural language meaning, vol. 2, 1660–1712. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. Ladusaw, William A. 1980. Polarity sensitivity as inherent scope relations. New York: Garland Pub. Penka, Doris. 2011. Negative indefinites. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Spencer, Andrew. 2012. Clitics: An introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Zeijlstra, Hedde. 2004. Sentential negation and negative concord. Dissertation, University of Amsterdam. http://ling.auf.net/lingbuzz/000181 (accessed 1 June 2022).
本杰明一起珍藏的东西。安娜斯塔西娅·詹纳基杜,2011。负极性和正极性项目。克劳斯·冯·休辛格,克劳迪娅·迈恩伯恩和保罗·波特纳(编),语义学:自然语言意义的国际手册,第2卷,1660-1712。柏林:De Gruyter Mouton。William A. Ladusaw, 1980。极性敏感性作为固有的范围关系。纽约:Garland酒吧。多丽丝·彭卡,2011。消极的不确定。牛津:牛津大学出版社。安德鲁·斯宾塞,2012。评论:介绍。剑桥:剑桥大学出版社。泽伊尔斯特拉,海德。2004。句子否定与否定协调。毕业论文,阿姆斯特丹大学。http://ling.auf.net/lingbuzz/000181(2022年6月1日访问)。
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引用次数: 0
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Journal of Linguistics
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