Journal of Experimental Child Psychology最新文献_第4页

Bidirectional effects between working memory and math in children with and without math disabilities: Does working memory or math drive the system? 有和没有数学障碍的儿童的工作记忆和数学之间的双向效应：是工作记忆还是数学驱动系统？

IF 2 2区心理学 Q3 PSYCHOLOGY, DEVELOPMENTAL

Journal of Experimental Child Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-11-07 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2025.106404

H. Lee Swanson

Inefficient working memory (WM) processes underlie poor math performance in children with math disabilities (MD). However, the assumed directional relationship between WM and math performance in children with MD has not been tested. Recent studies with large heterogeneous samples of elementary school children show a bidirectional relationship between working memory and achievement (math in this case) in which achievement (i.e., math) plays the dominant role in later WM development. In this study, we investigate the bidirectional relation between WM and math in three cohorts across three grades (Cohort 1 = grades 1 to 3; Cohort 2 = grades 2 to 4; Cohort 3 = grades 3 to 5) of children (N = 651) over three years. Within these cohorts, children with MD (n = 103) were compared to children without MD (n = 446) and high math achievers (n = 175). The results showed that: (1) the pattern of within-subject changes and between-subject changes varied between children with and without MD, (2) age-related increases in math proficiency drew extensively upon WM resources, and (3) model testing showed a directional influence of WM on math for children without MD and high achievers, but not for children with MD. Performance for children with MD reflected a weaker connection between WM and math at the initial stage than in the later stages of learning. Taken together, the results suggest that the dominance of math predictions on later development of WM is not necessarily due to prior math knowledge or a reduction in WM resources, but to the weaker growth of WM relative to math growth.

低效的工作记忆（WM）过程是数学障碍儿童数学表现不佳的根本原因。然而，假设的WM与MD儿童数学成绩之间的定向关系尚未得到检验。最近对小学生的大量异质样本的研究表明，工作记忆与成就（在本例中为数学）之间存在双向关系，其中成就（即数学）在后期WM发展中起主导作用。在本研究中，我们对651名三年级儿童（队列1 = 1至3年级；队列2 = 2至4年级；队列3 = 3至5年级）进行了为期三年的WM与数学之间的双向关系调查。在这些队列中，将患有MD的儿童（n = 103）与没有MD的儿童（n = 446）和数学成绩优异的儿童（n = 175）进行比较。结果表明：(1)学科内变化和学科间变化的模式在患有和没有患有数学障碍的儿童之间存在差异；(2)与年龄相关的数学熟练程度的提高广泛利用了WM资源；(3)模型检验表明，WM对非MD和高成就儿童的数学有方向性影响，但对MD儿童没有影响。MD儿童的成绩反映出WM与数学在初始阶段的联系较弱，而在后期学习阶段则没有。综上所述，研究结果表明，数学预测对后期WM发展的主导作用并不一定是由于先前的数学知识或WM资源的减少，而是由于相对于数学的增长，WM的增长较弱。

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引用次数: 0

To lie or not to lie: The role of costs and benefits in children’s decision-making 说谎还是不说谎：成本和收益在儿童决策中的作用

IF 2 2区心理学 Q3 PSYCHOLOGY, DEVELOPMENTAL

Journal of Experimental Child Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-11-06 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2025.106407

Joanna Płotnikowska , Anna Filip

For adults, adolescents, and preadolescents, deciding whether to lie or tell the truth is preceded by an analysis of the consequent material costs and benefits for themselves and the recipient. However, unlike older individuals, preadolescents prioritize their own gains and losses over those of others. In this study, we aimed to discover whether primary school-aged children also engage in such analyses. We studied 52 children aged 6–10 years old while engaged in a modified sender–receiver game in which we manipulated the payoff rates for the sender and receiver of a message. Children were more likely to lie for their own or mutual benefit than for the benefit of another player. There was no difference between the lying rates when both parties gained from lying and when lying benefited only the liar. Our findings suggest that, similar to preadolescents, children’s decisions to lie or to be truthful rely more on the consequent costs and benefits for themselves than those for the recipients of their messages.

对于成年人、青少年和青春期前的人来说，在决定说谎还是说实话之前，他们会先对自己和接受者的物质成本和利益进行分析。然而，与年龄较大的人不同，青春期前的人优先考虑自己的得失，而不是他人的得失。在本研究中，我们旨在发现小学适龄儿童是否也参与这种分析。我们研究了52名6-10岁的儿童，他们参与了一个改进的发送者-接收者游戏，在这个游戏中，我们操纵了信息发送者和接收者的回报率。孩子们更有可能为了自己或双方的利益而撒谎，而不是为了另一个玩家的利益。当双方都从撒谎中获益时，撒谎率和说谎只对说谎者有利时没有差别。我们的研究结果表明，与青春期前的孩子们相似，孩子们决定说谎或说实话更多地取决于自己的成本和收益，而不是信息接收者的成本和收益。

引用次数: 0

The infant brain combines emotional information from faces and action kinematics 婴儿的大脑将来自面部的情感信息和动作运动学结合起来

IF 2 2区心理学 Q3 PSYCHOLOGY, DEVELOPMENTAL

Journal of Experimental Child Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-11-06 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2025.106406

M. Addabbo , J. Mermier , J. Rutkowska , M. Meyer , S. Hunnius , C. Turati , H. Bulf

Converging evidence suggests that infants can extract and integrate emotional content from multiple sources (e.g., faces, body postures, and voices). Yet this evidence is mostly based on static representations of emotions, such as photographs, whereas in everyday life, infants are primarily exposed to dynamic input, particularly others’ actions. This study investigates whether infants can link emotional information conveyed in action kinematics and facial expressions. To address this issue, we used an ERP priming paradigm in which 12-month-olds were presented with video primes of actions performed with happy or angry kinematics, followed by target images of faces displaying happy or angry facial expressions. Results revealed a P400 congruency effect over the right hemisphere. Specifically, happy faces elicited a larger P400 than angry faces when they followed an incongruent emotional action. Moreover, the P400 was larger for incongruent than for congruent happy facial expressions. Results suggest that bodily kinematics provide infants with crucial contextual and emotional cues that bias their perception of facial expressions from early in life.

越来越多的证据表明，婴儿可以从多个来源（如面部、身体姿势和声音）提取和整合情感内容。然而，这一证据主要是基于静态的情感表现，比如照片，而在日常生活中，婴儿主要接触到动态输入，尤其是他人的行为。本研究探讨婴儿是否能将动作动作和面部表情传递的情感信息联系起来。为了解决这个问题，我们使用了一个ERP启动范式，在这个范式中，我们向12个月大的婴儿展示了带有快乐或愤怒运动的动作视频启动，然后是显示快乐或愤怒面部表情的目标面部图像。结果显示P400一致性效应在右半球。具体来说，当出现不一致的情绪行为时，快乐的脸比愤怒的脸引发的P400更大。此外，不一致面部表情的P400比一致面部表情的P400更大。结果表明，身体运动学为婴儿提供了重要的环境和情感线索，这些线索使他们从生命早期开始对面部表情的感知产生偏差。

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引用次数: 0

Mediating role of emotional regulation self-efficacy in the relationship between self-compassion and aggressive behavior in Chinese children 情绪调节自我效能感在儿童自我同情与攻击行为关系中的中介作用。

IF 2 2区心理学 Q3 PSYCHOLOGY, DEVELOPMENTAL

Journal of Experimental Child Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-11-03 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2025.106391

Wei Li , Xihua Zeng

Objective

The present study examined the relationship between self-compassion (SC) and aggressive behavior (AB) in children based on the mediating role of emotional regulation self-efficacy (ERSE). The study also distinguished between positive self-compassion (PSC) and negative self-compassion (NSC) and the influence on aggression.

Methods

A total of 628 students (9–15 years of age) attending Chinese primary and secondary schools were surveyed using validated SC, ERSE, and AB instruments. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was utilized to test the mediation model and the bootstrap method was utilized to test indirect effects.

Results

ERSE significantly mediated between SC and AB. PSC was only related to lower aggression through a higher ERSE because of indirect effects on physical aggressive behavior [PAB] (P < 0.01) and indirect aggressive behavior [IAB] (P < 0.05) were significant with full mediation established. In contrast, NSC exerted indirect and direct effects on aggression. NSC was positively correlated with PAB (P < 0.01) and IAB (P < 0.01) and the direct effects accounted for 75.2 % and 88.6 % of the total effects, respectively. NSC also exerted a negative effect on ERSE (P < 0.01), which further resulted in increased aggression in support of partial mediation.

Conclusion

These findings suggest that ERSE is a key mechanism linking SC to aggression and highlight the importance of enhancing ERSE in aggression prevention programs. Future programs should target increasing PSC, reducing NSC, and improving emotional regulation skills to offset AB in children.

目的：基于情绪调节自我效能感（ERSE）的中介作用，探讨儿童自我同情（SC）与攻击行为（AB）之间的关系。研究还区分了积极自我同情（PSC）和消极自我同情（NSC）对攻击行为的影响。方法：采用经验证的SC、ERSE和AB仪器对628名9-15岁的中国中小学生进行调查。采用结构方程模型（SEM）对中介模型进行检验，采用自举法对间接效应进行检验。结果：ERSE在SC和AB之间具有显著的中介作用，PSC仅通过较高的ERSE间接影响身体攻击行为而与较低的攻击相关[PAB] (P)结论：ERSE是SC与攻击之间联系的关键机制，并强调了提高ERSE在攻击预防计划中的重要性。未来的项目应以增加PSC、减少NSC和提高情绪调节技能为目标，以抵消儿童AB。

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引用次数: 0

The effect of articulatory rehearsal on dual-retrieval processes in semantically related list recall: A comparison between 8- and 10-year-old children and young adults 发音排练对语义相关表回忆中双检索过程的影响：8、10岁儿童与青少年的比较。

IF 2 2区心理学 Q3 PSYCHOLOGY, DEVELOPMENTAL

Journal of Experimental Child Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-11-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2025.106403

Léa Hami , Laurence Casini , Marlène Abadie

When asked to remember a list of items for later testing, we often repeat earlier items to ourselves as later items are presented. This process, called “rehearsal,” develops during childhood. The present study examined the role of rehearsal in recalling lists of semantically related words and used the dual-retrieval model to pinpoint the retrieval processes modified by rehearsal in children and adults. Thirty-one children (Mage = 8.8 years, SD = 0.5, 12 females and 19 males) and 29 adults (Mage = 20.5 years, SD = 2.7, 23 females and 6 males) performed a complex span task consisting of maintaining words to be recalled later in immediate and delayed tests, while performing a concurrent task. The difficulty of the task was adjusted according to each participant’s abilities. Participants performed the task either silently, which allowed them to use rehearsal, or under articulatory suppression, which reduced rehearsal opportunities. The results showed that, although adults had a higher rate of correct recall, children benefited from rehearsal opportunities for both immediate and delayed correct recall. There were also fewer semantic errors in both age groups when rehearsal could be used. The dual-retrieval model revealed that rehearsal fosters direct access to verbatim memory and reconstruction based on gist memory. Finally, the difference in correct recall and direct access between the two age groups decreased when rehearsal could be used. These findings suggest that, although rehearsal is more effective for adults, children benefit more from it for correct recall and direct access to verbatim traces.

当我们被要求记住一系列的项目以备以后的测试时，我们经常会在出现以后的项目时重复之前的项目。这个过程被称为“排练”，是在儿童时期发展起来的。本研究考察了预演在记忆语义相关词表中的作用，并利用双检索模型确定了儿童和成人预演对检索过程的影响。31名儿童（法师= 8.8岁，SD = 0.5, 12名女性和19名男性）和29名成人（法师= 20.5岁，SD = 2.7, 23名女性和6名男性）在执行并发任务的同时，执行了一项复杂的跨域任务，包括在即时和延迟测试中保留待回忆的单词。任务的难度根据每个参与者的能力进行了调整。参与者要么默默地完成任务，这样他们就可以进行排练，要么在发音抑制的情况下完成任务，这样就减少了排练的机会。结果表明，尽管成年人的正确回忆率更高，但儿童从排练中获得的即时和延迟正确回忆的机会都受益。当可以使用排练时，两个年龄组的语义错误都更少。双重检索模型显示，排练促进了对逐字记忆的直接访问和基于要点记忆的重建。最后，当可以使用排练时，两个年龄组在正确回忆和直接访问方面的差异减小。这些发现表明，虽然排练对成年人更有效，但儿童在正确回忆和直接获取逐字痕迹方面受益更多。

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引用次数: 0

The nature of order processing deficits in developmental dyscalculia: The influences of familiarity and the count-list 发展性计算障碍中顺序处理缺陷的性质：熟悉度和计数表的影响

IF 2 2区心理学 Q3 PSYCHOLOGY, DEVELOPMENTAL

Journal of Experimental Child Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-11-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2025.106402

Declan Devlin , Natalia Dubinkina , Eveline De Praetere , Francesco Sella , Bert Reynvoet

Children with developmental dyscalculia often show impaired performance on number order processing tasks. Recent findings suggest these deficits are not general in nature, but instead specific to certain kinds of sequences. In particular, one proposal is that dyscalculic children struggle specifically to understand that “in order” can refer to sequences outside of the (ascending-consecutive) count-list (e.g., 1-3-5 is in order). However, previous findings in support of this view were limited by (i) only considering ascending sequences and (ii) not accounting for other factors known to influence order processing performance, such as sequence familiarity. To address this, the present study compared a control (n = 28) and dyscalculic group (n = 12), aged between 7-12 years, across ascending and descending sequences varying in familiarity. As expected, dyscalculic children showed impaired performance on ascending non-consecutive sequences (e.g., 1-3-5) but not on ascending consecutive sequences (e.g., 1-2-3). Notably, however, this deficit appeared to remain only for unfamiliar sequences (e.g., 2-5-8) and not familiar ones (e.g., 2-4-6), although this interaction was non-significant. Moreover, dyscalculic children displayed typical performance across both consecutive (e.g., 5-4-3) and non-consecutive (e.g., 5-3-1) descending sequences, neither of which match the traditional count-list. Accordingly, although order processing deficits in developmental dyscalculia do appear specific in nature, they are not necessarily specific to non-count-list sequences.

患有发展性计算障碍的儿童通常在数字顺序处理任务上表现不佳。最近的研究结果表明，这些缺陷在本质上不是普遍的，而是特定于某些类型的序列。特别是，一个建议是计算困难的儿童特别难以理解“In order”可以指（升序连续）计数表之外的序列（例如，1-3-5是In order）。然而，先前支持这一观点的研究结果受到以下限制：(i)仅考虑升序序列和（ii）未考虑已知影响顺序处理性能的其他因素，如序列熟悉度。为了解决这个问题，本研究比较了对照组（n = 28）和计算障碍组（n = 12），年龄在7-12岁之间，在升序和降序上熟悉程度不同。不出所料，计算障碍儿童在升序非连续数列（如1-3-5）上表现受损，但在升序连续数列（如1-2-3）上没有。然而，值得注意的是，这种缺陷似乎只存在于不熟悉的序列（例如，2-5-8）和不熟悉的序列（例如，2-4-6），尽管这种相互作用不显著。此外，计算困难的儿童在连续（例如5-4-3）和非连续（例如5-3-1）降序序列中都表现出典型的表现，这两种序列都不匹配传统的计数表。因此，尽管发育性计算障碍中的顺序处理缺陷在本质上确实表现为特异性，但它们并不一定针对非计数表序列。

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引用次数: 0

Longitudinal relations between self-derivation and semantic knowledge growth 自衍生与语义知识增长的纵向关系。

IF 2 2区心理学 Q3 PSYCHOLOGY, DEVELOPMENTAL

Journal of Experimental Child Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-10-28 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2025.106378

Lucy M. Cronin-Golomb, Patricia J. Bauer

Productive memory processes, wherein learners move beyond directly taught information to generate new knowledge, are considered a means to knowledge base expansion. One such productive process is self-derivation through memory integration, which has been shown to relate concurrently to both children’s and adults’ performance on tests of semantic knowledge. Yet the extent to which self-derivation is a means of support for accumulation of new knowledge over time is not yet known. In the current study, to address this question, we examined longitudinal relations between self-derivation and knowledge in a sample of 148 8- to 12-year-old children (51 % female, 65 % White, 7 % Hispanic descent) in the Southeastern United States. To do so, we provided tests of self-derivation, memory for directly taught facts, and knowledge at two waves of data collection, approximately 1 year apart. We found significant relations between self-derivation and measures of knowledge across 1 year’s time, while accounting for age and memory for directly taught information. This research provides novel insight to the cognitive mechanisms that underlie successful semantic knowledge base expansion.

在生产性记忆过程中，学习者超越直接教授的信息来产生新知识，被认为是知识库扩展的一种手段。一个这样的生产过程是通过记忆整合的自我推导，这已被证明与儿童和成人在语义知识测试中的表现同时相关。然而，随着时间的推移，自我推导在多大程度上是支持新知识积累的一种手段，目前尚不清楚。在当前的研究中，为了解决这个问题，我们对美国东南部148名8- 12岁儿童（51%为女性，65%为白人，7%为西班牙裔）的样本进行了自我推导与知识之间的纵向关系研究。为此，我们在大约间隔1年的两波数据收集中提供了自我推导、对直接教授的事实的记忆和知识的测试。我们发现自我推导与一年时间内的知识测量之间存在显著关系，同时考虑到年龄和直接教授信息的记忆。这项研究为成功扩展语义知识库的认知机制提供了新的见解。

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引用次数: 0

Children infer social group attitudes from evaluative behavioral information but do not extend them to unfamiliar group members 儿童从评价性行为信息中推断社会群体态度，但不会将其扩展到不熟悉的群体成员。

IF 2 2区心理学 Q3 PSYCHOLOGY, DEVELOPMENTAL

Journal of Experimental Child Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-10-28 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2025.106401

Nora Feline Becker , Yarrow Dunham , Juliane Degner

Children readily infer the presence of social groups based on shared characteristics. Theorizing and research in developmental psychology suggest that social categorization and inference processes may be influenced by linguistic cues or labels used to describe behaviors or groups. For example, Gelman and Heyman (1999) found that children attributed greater stability to behaviors if described with nouns rather than verbs. However, there is only limited developmental research on how linguistic cues affect group attitude formation. We present three studies examining how linguistics cues influence evaluation of novel groups, focusing on the distinction between noun and adjective labels. We introduced children to two groups via a storybook paradigm depicting desirable or undesirable behaviors (N = 365; median age = 7 years). While children acquired evaluative group representations, contrary to our hypotheses, linguistic variations did not significantly impact attitude formation. Children expressed group differences primarily through positive evaluations and did not generalize these group evaluations to unfamiliar group members, instead tending to evaluate them mildly positively.

孩子们很容易根据共同的特征来推断社会群体的存在。发展心理学的理论和研究表明，社会分类和推理过程可能受到用于描述行为或群体的语言线索或标签的影响。例如，Gelman和Heyman（1999）发现，如果用名词而不是动词来描述，孩子们认为行为更稳定。然而，关于语言线索如何影响群体态度形成的发展研究非常有限。我们提出了三个研究考察语言学线索如何影响新群体的评价，重点是名词和形容词标签之间的区别。我们通过故事书范式将儿童分为两组（N = 365；中位年龄= 7岁）。当儿童获得评价性群体表征时，与我们的假设相反，语言差异对态度形成没有显著影响。儿童主要通过积极评价来表达群体差异，不会将这些群体评价推广到不熟悉的群体成员，而是倾向于对他们进行温和的积极评价。

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引用次数: 0

Problem-size effect in 6 and 12-year-old children: from counting to memory retrieval 6岁和12岁儿童的问题大小效应：从计数到记忆提取

IF 2 2区心理学 Q3 PSYCHOLOGY, DEVELOPMENTAL

Journal of Experimental Child Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-10-25 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2025.106394

Filip Andras, Pedro Macizo

Currently, there is a heated debate regarding the cognitive processes involved in solving single-digit addition problems and their inherent problem-size effect. The problem-size effect corresponds to an increase in the solution times as the size of the operands increases, and two theoretical accounts (memory retrieval and automatized counting) have been proposed to explain this effect. In the present study, we investigated the developmental changes behind the problem-size effect to pit these accounts against each other. To do so, 61 first-grade and sixth-grade children solved single-digit addition problems (with operands ranging from 0 to 9), and we scrutinized the problem-size effect within both tie and non-tie problems. We observed that tie problems presented a problem-size effect in first-grade children and this effect disappeared by the sixth grade. This is consistent with recent observations showing a developmental shift from counting to direct memory retrieval for small tie problems (Bagnoud et al., 2021), and we extend these findings by showing that this shift occurs at different speed for large ties. In contrast, non-tie problems always presented a problem-size effect in the first-grade children and critically in the sixth-grade children. This is inconsistent with the automatized counting theory (Uittenhove et al., 2016), which proposes different cognitive mechanisms for very-small and medium-small non-tie problems. Conversely, our data are better accommodated by the memory retrieval accounts (e.g., Campbell, 1995), which posit that small non-tie additions are initially solved by algorithmic procedures, but later transition to be solved by direct memory retrieval.

目前，关于解决个位数加法问题所涉及的认知过程及其固有的问题大小效应，存在着激烈的争论。问题大小效应对应于随着操作数大小的增加而增加的解决时间，已经提出了两种理论解释（内存检索和自动计数）来解释这种效应。在本研究中，我们调查了问题大小效应背后的发展变化，以使这些说法相互对立。为此，61名一年级和六年级的孩子解决了个位数的加法问题（操作数范围从0到9），我们仔细研究了问题大小对平局和非平局问题的影响。我们观察到，问题在一年级儿童中表现出问题大小效应，这种效应在六年级时消失。这与最近的观察结果一致，该观察结果显示，对于小领带问题，从计数到直接记忆检索的发展转变（Bagnoud等人，2021），我们通过表明这种转变以不同的速度发生在大领带上来扩展这些发现。相比之下，非领带问题在一年级儿童中总是表现出问题大小效应，在六年级儿童中表现出严重的问题大小效应。这与自动化计数理论（Uittenhove et al., 2016）不一致，该理论为非常小和中小型非关联问题提出了不同的认知机制。相反，我们的数据更好地适应于记忆检索帐户（例如，Campbell, 1995），它假设小的非关联加法最初由算法程序解决，但后来过渡到直接记忆检索解决。

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引用次数: 0

Punish, compensate, or both? Children’s fairness decisions in varying choice contexts 惩罚，补偿，还是两者兼而有之？儿童在不同选择情境下的公平决策

IF 2 2区心理学 Q3 PSYCHOLOGY, DEVELOPMENTAL

Journal of Experimental Child Psychology

Pub Date : 2025-10-24 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2025.106400

Lingyu Yi , Peiqi Chen , Meijie Wang , Xiaoqin Mai

Understanding developmental trajectories in fairness decision-making provides critical insights into the foundational role of fairness norms in human societies. This study investigates how different choice contexts shape children’s preferred approach and the costs incurred on fairness decisions. We examined third-party punishment (TPP) and third-party compensation (TPC) behaviors among children aged 10–12 years across two choice contexts: the single-choice context requiring the selection of either punishment or compensation (N = 243) and the dual-choice context allowing the use of both (N = 236). Participants responded to three types of offers: high inequality, moderate inequality, and equality. Key findings revealed that (1) Children predominantly chose “compensate only” in the single-choice context but preferred “punish and compensate” in the dual-choice context, and (2) Children incurred more costs to uphold fairness in the dual-choice context, with developmental differences observed across age groups. These results highlight how choice context influences fairness decision-making, deepen our understanding of developmental changes in TPP and TPC, and offer implications for how educators and policymakers can support children in proactively safeguarding fairness as bystanders.

理解公平决策的发展轨迹，为理解公平规范在人类社会中的基础作用提供了重要的见解。本研究探讨了不同的选择环境如何塑造儿童的偏好方法以及公平决策所产生的成本。我们研究了10-12岁儿童在两种选择情境下的第三方惩罚（TPP）和第三方补偿（TPC）行为：要求选择惩罚或补偿的单一选择情境（N = 243）和允许两者同时使用的双重选择情境（N = 236）。参与者对三种类型的提议做出反应：高度不平等、适度不平等和平等。结果表明：(1)儿童在单选题情境中倾向于选择“只补偿”，而在双选题情境中更倾向于选择“惩罚和补偿”；(2)儿童在双选题情境中维护公平的成本更高，且存在年龄组间的发展差异。这些结果突出了选择情境如何影响公平决策，加深了我们对TPP和TPC发展变化的理解，并为教育工作者和政策制定者如何支持儿童作为旁观者积极维护公平提供了启示。

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引用次数: 0