The basic physical principles of X-ray Absorption Fine-Structure (XAFS) are presented. XAFS is an element-specific spectroscopy in which measurements are made by tuning the X-ray energy at and above a selected core-level binding energy of a specified element. Although XAFS is a well-established technique providing reliable and useful information about the chemical and physical environment of the probe atom, its requirement of an energy-tunable X-ray source means it is primarily done with synchrotron radiation sources and so is somewhat less common than other spectroscopic analytical methods. XAFS spectra are especially sensitive to the oxidation state and coordination chemistry of the selected element. In addition, the extended oscillations of the XAFS spectra are sensitive to the distances, coordination number and species of the atoms immediately surrounding the selected element. This Extended X-ray Absorption Fine-Structure (EXAFS) is the main focus of this chapter. As it is element-specific, XAFS places few restrictions on the form of the sample, and can be used in a variety of systems and bulk physical environments, including crystals, glasses, liquids, and heterogeneous mixtures. Additionally, XAFS can often be done on low-concentration elements (typically down to a few ppm), and so has applications in a wide range of scientific fields, including chemistry, biology, catalysis research, material science, environmental science, and geology. Special attention in this chapter is given to the basic concepts used in analysis and modeling of EXAFS spectra. X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) is the modulation of an atom’s X-ray absorption probability at energies near and above the binding energy of a core-level electron of the atom. The XAFS is due to the chemical and physical state of the absorbing atom. XAFS spectra are especially sensitive to the formal oxidation state, coordination chemistry, and the distances, coordination number and species of the atoms immediately surrounding the selected …
{"title":"Fundamentals of XAFS","authors":"M. Newville","doi":"10.2138/RMG.2014.78.2","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2138/RMG.2014.78.2","url":null,"abstract":"The basic physical principles of X-ray Absorption Fine-Structure (XAFS) are presented. XAFS is an element-specific spectroscopy in which measurements are made by tuning the X-ray energy at and above a selected core-level binding energy of a specified element. Although XAFS is a well-established technique providing reliable and useful information about the chemical and physical environment of the probe atom, its requirement of an energy-tunable X-ray source means it is primarily done with synchrotron radiation sources and so is somewhat less common than other spectroscopic analytical methods. XAFS spectra are especially sensitive to the oxidation state and coordination chemistry of the selected element. In addition, the extended oscillations of the XAFS spectra are sensitive to the distances, coordination number and species of the atoms immediately surrounding the selected element. This Extended X-ray Absorption Fine-Structure (EXAFS) is the main focus of this chapter. As it is element-specific, XAFS places few restrictions on the form of the sample, and can be used in a variety of systems and bulk physical environments, including crystals, glasses, liquids, and heterogeneous mixtures. Additionally, XAFS can often be done on low-concentration elements (typically down to a few ppm), and so has applications in a wide range of scientific fields, including chemistry, biology, catalysis research, material science, environmental science, and geology. Special attention in this chapter is given to the basic concepts used in analysis and modeling of EXAFS spectra. X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) is the modulation of an atom’s X-ray absorption probability at energies near and above the binding energy of a core-level electron of the atom. The XAFS is due to the chemical and physical state of the absorbing atom. XAFS spectra are especially sensitive to the formal oxidation state, coordination chemistry, and the distances, coordination number and species of the atoms immediately surrounding the selected …","PeriodicalId":49624,"journal":{"name":"Reviews in Mineralogy & Geochemistry","volume":"4 1 1","pages":"33-74"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2014-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"78284508","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
R. Bowell, C. Alpers, H. Jamieson, D. Nordstrom, J. Majzlan
Arsenic is one of the most prevalent toxic elements in the environment. The toxicity, mobility, and fate of arsenic in the environment are determined by a complex series of controls dependent on mineralogy, chemical speciation, and biological processes. The element was first described by Theophrastus in 300 B.C. and named arsenikon (also arrhenicon; Caley and Richards 1956) referring to its “potent” nature, although it was originally considered an alternative form of sulfur (Boyle and Jonasson 1973). Arsenikon is believed to be derived from the earlier Persian, zarnik (online etymology dictionary, http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=arsenic ). It was not until the thirteenth century that an alchemist, Albertus Magnus, was able to isolate the element from orpiment, an arsenic sulfide (As2S3). The complex chemistry required to do this led to arsenic being considered a “bastard metal” or what we now call a “metalloid,” having properties of both metals and non-metals. As a chemical element, arsenic is widely distributed in nature and can be concentrated in many different ways. In the Earth’s crust, arsenic is concentrated by magmatic and hydrothermal processes and has been used as a “pathfinder” for metallic ore deposits, particularly gold, tin, copper, and tungsten (Boyle and Jonasson 1973; Cohen and Bowell 2014). It has for centuries been considered a potent toxin, is a common poison in actual and fictional crimes, and has led to significant impacts on human health in many areas of the world (Cullen 2008; Wharton 2010). The potential issues associated with elevated As concentrations in water supplies have led to a large body of published research in the last few years related to:
砷是环境中最常见的有毒元素之一。砷在环境中的毒性、流动性和命运是由一系列复杂的控制因素决定的，这些控制因素取决于矿物学、化学形态和生物过程。公元前300年，泰奥弗拉斯托斯首次描述了这种元素，并将其命名为arsenikon(也称arrhenicon;Caley和Richards 1956)提到它的“强效”性质，尽管它最初被认为是硫的一种替代形式(Boyle和Jonasson 1973)。Arsenikon被认为来源于早期的波斯语zarnik(在线词源词典，http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=arsenic)。直到13世纪，炼金术士阿尔伯图斯·马格努斯才从矿石中分离出一种硫化砷(As2S3)。这一过程需要复杂的化学反应，因此砷被认为是一种“私生子金属”，也就是我们现在所说的“类金属”，它同时具有金属和非金属的特性。砷作为一种化学元素，在自然界中分布广泛，可以通过多种不同的方式进行浓缩。在地壳中，砷通过岩浆和热液过程被浓缩，并被用作金属矿床，特别是金、锡、铜和钨的“探路者”(Boyle和Jonasson 1973;Cohen and Bowell 2014)。几个世纪以来，它一直被认为是一种强效毒素，是现实和虚构犯罪中的常见毒药，并在世界许多地区对人类健康产生了重大影响(Cullen 2008;沃顿商学院2010)。与供水中砷浓度升高有关的潜在问题在过去几年中导致了大量已发表的研究，这些研究涉及:
{"title":"The Environmental Geochemistry of Arsenic — An Overview —","authors":"R. Bowell, C. Alpers, H. Jamieson, D. Nordstrom, J. Majzlan","doi":"10.2138/RMG.2014.79.1","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2138/RMG.2014.79.1","url":null,"abstract":"Arsenic is one of the most prevalent toxic elements in the environment. The toxicity, mobility, and fate of arsenic in the environment are determined by a complex series of controls dependent on mineralogy, chemical speciation, and biological processes. The element was first described by Theophrastus in 300 B.C. and named arsenikon (also arrhenicon; Caley and Richards 1956) referring to its “potent” nature, although it was originally considered an alternative form of sulfur (Boyle and Jonasson 1973). Arsenikon is believed to be derived from the earlier Persian, zarnik (online etymology dictionary, http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=arsenic ). It was not until the thirteenth century that an alchemist, Albertus Magnus, was able to isolate the element from orpiment, an arsenic sulfide (As2S3). The complex chemistry required to do this led to arsenic being considered a “bastard metal” or what we now call a “metalloid,” having properties of both metals and non-metals. As a chemical element, arsenic is widely distributed in nature and can be concentrated in many different ways. In the Earth’s crust, arsenic is concentrated by magmatic and hydrothermal processes and has been used as a “pathfinder” for metallic ore deposits, particularly gold, tin, copper, and tungsten (Boyle and Jonasson 1973; Cohen and Bowell 2014). It has for centuries been considered a potent toxin, is a common poison in actual and fictional crimes, and has led to significant impacts on human health in many areas of the world (Cullen 2008; Wharton 2010). The potential issues associated with elevated As concentrations in water supplies have led to a large body of published research in the last few years related to:","PeriodicalId":49624,"journal":{"name":"Reviews in Mineralogy & Geochemistry","volume":"32 1","pages":"1-16"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2014-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"78481994","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
When monochromatic radiation νo, is incident on a system (gas, solid, liquid, glass, whether colored or transparent) most of the radiation is transmitted through the system without change, but some scattering of this radiation can also occur (approximately 1 in 107 photons). The scattered radiation corresponds to ν′ = νo ± ν m . In molecular systems, the energy of the scattered light (in wavenumbers, ν m ) is found to lie principally in the range associated with transitions between vibrational, rotational and electronic energy levels. Furthermore, the scattered radiation is generally polarized differently from that of the incident radiation with both scattered intensity and polarization dependent upon the direction of observation. During the 1920’s different physics groups worked on this subject around the world: 1) an Indian group composed of Raman and Krishnan (1928), who made the first observations of the phenomenon in liquids in 1928 (Raman won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930 for this work); 2) Landsberg and Mandelstam (1928) in the USSR reported the observation of light scattering with change of frequency in quartz and finally 3) Cabannes and Rocard (1928) in France confirmed the Raman and Krishnan (1928) observations while Rocard (1928) published the first theoretical explanation. The principle of Raman spectroscopy is the illumination of a material with monochromatic light (laser) in the visible spectral range followed by the interaction of the incident photons with the molecular vibrations or crystal phonons which induces a slight shift in the wavelength of the scattered photons. Scattering can occur with a change in vibrational, rotational or electronic energy of a molecule. If the scattering is elastic and the incident photons have the same energy as the scattered photons, the process is called Rayleigh scattering and this is the dominant scattering interaction. If …
{"title":"Advances in Raman Spectroscopy Applied to Earth and Material Sciences","authors":"D. Neuville, D. Ligny, G. Henderson","doi":"10.2138/RMG.2013.78.13","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2138/RMG.2013.78.13","url":null,"abstract":"When monochromatic radiation νo, is incident on a system (gas, solid, liquid, glass, whether colored or transparent) most of the radiation is transmitted through the system without change, but some scattering of this radiation can also occur (approximately 1 in 107 photons). The scattered radiation corresponds to ν′ = νo ± ν m . In molecular systems, the energy of the scattered light (in wavenumbers, ν m ) is found to lie principally in the range associated with transitions between vibrational, rotational and electronic energy levels. Furthermore, the scattered radiation is generally polarized differently from that of the incident radiation with both scattered intensity and polarization dependent upon the direction of observation. During the 1920’s different physics groups worked on this subject around the world: 1) an Indian group composed of Raman and Krishnan (1928), who made the first observations of the phenomenon in liquids in 1928 (Raman won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930 for this work); 2) Landsberg and Mandelstam (1928) in the USSR reported the observation of light scattering with change of frequency in quartz and finally 3) Cabannes and Rocard (1928) in France confirmed the Raman and Krishnan (1928) observations while Rocard (1928) published the first theoretical explanation. The principle of Raman spectroscopy is the illumination of a material with monochromatic light (laser) in the visible spectral range followed by the interaction of the incident photons with the molecular vibrations or crystal phonons which induces a slight shift in the wavelength of the scattered photons. Scattering can occur with a change in vibrational, rotational or electronic energy of a molecule. If the scattering is elastic and the incident photons have the same energy as the scattered photons, the process is called Rayleigh scattering and this is the dominant scattering interaction. If …","PeriodicalId":49624,"journal":{"name":"Reviews in Mineralogy & Geochemistry","volume":"24 1","pages":"509-541"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2014-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"90710431","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Arsenic (As) is a naturally occurring toxic metalloid that is ubiquitous in the environment. It is found in water, soil, and air and as such is also found in the food supply. Millions of people are exposed to As at concentrations in their drinking water that exceed health-based standards worldwide. The World Health Organization (WHO) has listed As as one of its ten chemicals of major public health concern (WHO 2010). Inorganic As (iAs) is listed as the number one concern on the Priority List of Hazardous Substances by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR 2014). This list is prepared by ASTDR and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and ranks the substances that present the greatest risk to public health. The list is based on a number of factors including prevalence, toxicity, and the potential for human exposure. Chronic exposure to high levels of As has proven to cause a variety of cancers, cardiovascular disease, and neurologic impairments in exposed populations (ATSDR 2007). ### Water The natural background concentration of As in water is 1 to 2 μg L−1 (Hindmarsh and McCurdy 1986; NRC 1999), yet elevated levels of iAs are present in the groundwater worldwide (Fig. 1). Elevated levels of As in groundwater can occur due to dissolution and weathering of As-rich ore deposits (Welch et al. 1999, 2000). This process can be accelerated in geothermal waters (Lord et al. 2012; Bundschuh et al. 2013), leading to contamination of surface and groundwater. For example, in the geothermal springs of Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming, As is known to exceed 1000 μg L−1 (Stauffer and Thompson 1984; Ball et al. 1998). These geothermal waters discharge into surface waters resulting in measured concentrations as high has 360 μg L−1 in …
砷(As)是一种天然存在的有毒类金属，在环境中无处不在。它存在于水、土壤和空气中，因此也存在于食物供应中。数百万人的饮用水中砷的浓度超过了世界范围内的健康标准。世界卫生组织(世卫组织)已将As列为引起重大公共卫生关注的十种化学品之一(世卫组织，2010年)。无机砷(iAs)被有毒物质和疾病登记处(ATSDR 2014)列为危险物质优先清单上的头号关注点。这份清单由ASTDR和美国环境保护署(USEPA)编制，对对公众健康构成最大风险的物质进行了排名。该清单是基于许多因素，包括流行程度、毒性和人类接触的可能性。长期暴露于高水平砷已被证明可在暴露人群中引起多种癌症、心血管疾病和神经系统损伤(ATSDR, 2007年)。水中砷的自然本底浓度为1 ~ 2 μg L−1 (Hindmarsh and McCurdy 1986;NRC 1999)，然而全球地下水中砷含量升高(图1)。地下水中砷含量升高可能是由于富砷矿床的溶解和风化造成的(Welch et al. 1999,2000)。这一过程在地热水中可以加速(Lord et al. 2012;Bundschuh et al. 2013)，导致地表水和地下水受到污染。例如，在怀俄明州黄石国家公园的地热泉中，已知As超过1000 μg L−1 (Stauffer和Thompson 1984;Ball et al. 1998)。这些地热水排放到地表水中，导致测量到的浓度高达360 μg L−1。
{"title":"Health Risks Associated with Chronic Exposures to Arsenic in the Environment","authors":"V. Mitchell","doi":"10.2138/RMG.2014.79.8","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2138/RMG.2014.79.8","url":null,"abstract":"Arsenic (As) is a naturally occurring toxic metalloid that is ubiquitous in the environment. It is found in water, soil, and air and as such is also found in the food supply. Millions of people are exposed to As at concentrations in their drinking water that exceed health-based standards worldwide. The World Health Organization (WHO) has listed As as one of its ten chemicals of major public health concern (WHO 2010). Inorganic As (iAs) is listed as the number one concern on the Priority List of Hazardous Substances by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR 2014). This list is prepared by ASTDR and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and ranks the substances that present the greatest risk to public health. The list is based on a number of factors including prevalence, toxicity, and the potential for human exposure. Chronic exposure to high levels of As has proven to cause a variety of cancers, cardiovascular disease, and neurologic impairments in exposed populations (ATSDR 2007). ### Water The natural background concentration of As in water is 1 to 2 μg L−1 (Hindmarsh and McCurdy 1986; NRC 1999), yet elevated levels of iAs are present in the groundwater worldwide (Fig. 1). Elevated levels of As in groundwater can occur due to dissolution and weathering of As-rich ore deposits (Welch et al. 1999, 2000). This process can be accelerated in geothermal waters (Lord et al. 2012; Bundschuh et al. 2013), leading to contamination of surface and groundwater. For example, in the geothermal springs of Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming, As is known to exceed 1000 μg L−1 (Stauffer and Thompson 1984; Ball et al. 1998). These geothermal waters discharge into surface waters resulting in measured concentrations as high has 360 μg L−1 in …","PeriodicalId":49624,"journal":{"name":"Reviews in Mineralogy & Geochemistry","volume":"109 1","pages":"435-449"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2014-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"80839588","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
A century has passed since the first X-ray diffraction experiment (Friedrich et al. 1912). During this time, X-ray diffraction has become a commonly used technique for the identification and characterization of materials and the field has seen continuous development. Advances in the theory of diffraction, in the generation of X-rays, in techniques and data analysis tools changed the ways X-ray diffraction is performed, the quality of the data analysis, and expanded the range of samples and problems that can be addressed. X-ray diffraction was first applied exclusively to crystalline structures idealized as perfect, rigid, space and time averaged arrangements of atoms, but now has been extended to virtually any material scattering X-rays. Materials of interest in geoscience vary greatly in size from giant crystals (meters in size) to nanoparticles (Hochella et al. 2008; Waychunas 2009), from nearly pure and perfect to heavily substituted and poorly ordered. As a consequence, a diverse range of modern diffraction capabilities is required to properly address the problems posed. The time and space resolution of X-ray diffraction now reaches to nanoseconds and tens of nanometers. Time resolved studies are used to unravel the mechanism and kinetics of mineral formation and transformations. Non-ambient conditions such as extreme pressure and temperature are created in the laboratory to investigate the structure and properties of the Earth’s deep interior and the processes that shape the planet. This chapter is not intended to be comprehensive or detailed, because diffraction is such a vast subject. We will, however, summarize the principles of diffraction theory under the assumption that the reader is familiar with basic concepts of the crystalline state. We will briefly review the basics of diffraction techniques, using laboratory and synchrotron X-ray sources and highlight some of their applications in geoscience. For briefness, we will omit the discussion of …
自第一次x射线衍射实验以来，已经过去了一个世纪(Friedrich et al. 1912)。在此期间，x射线衍射已成为一种常用的材料鉴定和表征技术，该领域得到了不断的发展。衍射理论、x射线的产生、技术和数据分析工具的进步改变了x射线衍射的进行方式、数据分析的质量，扩大了样品的范围和可以解决的问题。x射线衍射最初只应用于理想化的晶体结构，即完美的、刚性的、空间和时间平均的原子排列，但现在已经扩展到几乎任何散射x射线的材料。地球科学中感兴趣的材料在大小上差别很大，从巨大的晶体(米大小)到纳米颗粒(Hochella et al. 2008;Waychunas 2009)，从近乎纯粹和完美到被大量替代和无序。因此，需要各种各样的现代衍射能力来适当地解决所提出的问题。x射线衍射的时间和空间分辨率现已达到纳秒级和几十纳米级。时间分辨研究用于揭示矿物形成和转化的机制和动力学。非环境条件，如极端压力和温度，是在实验室中创造的，以研究地球深处的结构和性质，以及塑造地球的过程。本章并不打算全面或详细，因为衍射是一个如此庞大的主题。然而，我们将在假设读者熟悉晶态的基本概念的情况下，总结衍射理论的原理。我们将简要回顾衍射技术的基础知识，使用实验室和同步加速器x射线源，并重点介绍它们在地球科学中的一些应用。为简短起见，我们将省略对……的讨论。
{"title":"Modern X-ray Diffraction Methods in Mineralogy and Geosciences","authors":"B. Lavina, P. Dera, R. Downs","doi":"10.2138/RMG.2014.78.1","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2138/RMG.2014.78.1","url":null,"abstract":"A century has passed since the first X-ray diffraction experiment (Friedrich et al. 1912). During this time, X-ray diffraction has become a commonly used technique for the identification and characterization of materials and the field has seen continuous development. Advances in the theory of diffraction, in the generation of X-rays, in techniques and data analysis tools changed the ways X-ray diffraction is performed, the quality of the data analysis, and expanded the range of samples and problems that can be addressed. X-ray diffraction was first applied exclusively to crystalline structures idealized as perfect, rigid, space and time averaged arrangements of atoms, but now has been extended to virtually any material scattering X-rays. Materials of interest in geoscience vary greatly in size from giant crystals (meters in size) to nanoparticles (Hochella et al. 2008; Waychunas 2009), from nearly pure and perfect to heavily substituted and poorly ordered. As a consequence, a diverse range of modern diffraction capabilities is required to properly address the problems posed. The time and space resolution of X-ray diffraction now reaches to nanoseconds and tens of nanometers. Time resolved studies are used to unravel the mechanism and kinetics of mineral formation and transformations. Non-ambient conditions such as extreme pressure and temperature are created in the laboratory to investigate the structure and properties of the Earth’s deep interior and the processes that shape the planet. This chapter is not intended to be comprehensive or detailed, because diffraction is such a vast subject. We will, however, summarize the principles of diffraction theory under the assumption that the reader is familiar with basic concepts of the crystalline state. We will briefly review the basics of diffraction techniques, using laboratory and synchrotron X-ray sources and highlight some of their applications in geoscience. For briefness, we will omit the discussion of …","PeriodicalId":49624,"journal":{"name":"Reviews in Mineralogy & Geochemistry","volume":"11 1","pages":"1-31"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2014-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"84621022","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Reviews on the geochemistry, biochemistry, or microbial ecology of arsenic—and there are many—commonly start with statements about the toxicity of this metalloid (Newman et al. 1998; Rosen 2002; Smedley and Kinniburgh 2002; Oremland and Stolz 2003; Oremland et al. 2004, 2009; Silver and Phung 2005; Lloyd and Oremland 2006; Stolz et al. 2006, 2010; Bhattacharjee and Rosen 2007; Paez-Espino et al. 2009; Tsai et al. 2009; Slyemi and Bonnefoy 2012; Cavalca et al. 2013b; Kruger et al. 2013; van Lis et al. 2013; Watanabe and Hirano 2013; Zhu et al. 2014). These introductions are sometimes followed by famous anecdotes of foul play (e.g., was Napoleon I poisoned by his British captors?) and reminders that arsenic was used as a popular medicine, tonic, and aphrodisiac since the 18th century. Recall that the 1908 Nobel Prize in medicine was awarded to Paul Ehrlich, in part, for the discovery of an organoarsenical (Salvarsan) as a treatment for syphilis—this was arguably also the first documented application of what would later become known as “chemotherapy.” Readers are then often reminded that arsenic is still used today in pesticides and herbicides, in animal feed, as a wood preservative, in electronic devices, and in specialized medical treatments. Arsenic is toxic in both of its common oxidation states, the oxidized arsenate, As(V), and the reduced arsenite, As(III). As a molecular analog of phosphate, arsenate uses a phosphate transport system to enter the cell and there inhibits the phosphorylation of ADP and thereby the synthesis of ATP. Arsenate can also substitute for phosphate in various biomolecules, thus disrupting key pathways, including glycolysis. Arsenite is even more toxic than arsenate and enters the cell much like glycerol molecules via aqua-glyceroporins (Cullen …
对砷的地球化学、生物化学或微生物生态学的评论——有很多——通常以这种类金属的毒性陈述开始(Newman etal . 1998;Rosen 2002;Smedley and Kinniburgh 2002;Oremland and Stolz 2003;Oremland et al. 2004,2009;2005年;Lloyd and Oremland 2006;Stolz et al. 2006, 2010;Bhattacharjee and Rosen 2007;Paez-Espino et al. 2009;Tsai et al. 2009;Slyemi and Bonnefoy 2012;Cavalca et al. 2013b;Kruger et al. 2013;van Lis et al. 2013;Watanabe and Hirano 2013;Zhu et al. 2014)。这些介绍之后，有时还会有一些著名的谋杀轶事(例如，拿破仑一世是被俘获他的英国人毒死的吗?)，并提醒人们，自18世纪以来，砷就被用作一种流行的药物、补品和壮阳药。回想一下，1908年诺贝尔医学奖被授予保罗·埃利希(Paul Ehrlich)，部分原因是他发现了一种用于治疗梅毒的有机砷(Salvarsan)——这也可以说是后来被称为“化疗”的第一次有记录的应用。读者们常常会被提醒，砷今天仍然被用于杀虫剂和除草剂、动物饲料、木材防腐剂、电子设备和专门的医疗中。砷在两种常见的氧化状态下都是有毒的，即氧化砷酸盐As(V)和还原亚砷酸盐As(III)。作为磷酸盐的分子类似物，砷酸盐通过磷酸盐转运系统进入细胞，抑制ADP的磷酸化，从而抑制ATP的合成。砷酸盐还可以替代各种生物分子中的磷酸盐，从而破坏包括糖酵解在内的关键途径。亚砷酸盐甚至比砷酸盐毒性更大，它像甘油分子一样通过水-甘油孔蛋白进入细胞。
{"title":"Microbial Arsenic Metabolism and Reaction Energetics","authors":"J. Amend, C. Saltikov, G. Lu, Jaime Hernández","doi":"10.2138/RMG.2014.79.7","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2138/RMG.2014.79.7","url":null,"abstract":"Reviews on the geochemistry, biochemistry, or microbial ecology of arsenic—and there are many—commonly start with statements about the toxicity of this metalloid (Newman et al. 1998; Rosen 2002; Smedley and Kinniburgh 2002; Oremland and Stolz 2003; Oremland et al. 2004, 2009; Silver and Phung 2005; Lloyd and Oremland 2006; Stolz et al. 2006, 2010; Bhattacharjee and Rosen 2007; Paez-Espino et al. 2009; Tsai et al. 2009; Slyemi and Bonnefoy 2012; Cavalca et al. 2013b; Kruger et al. 2013; van Lis et al. 2013; Watanabe and Hirano 2013; Zhu et al. 2014). These introductions are sometimes followed by famous anecdotes of foul play (e.g., was Napoleon I poisoned by his British captors?) and reminders that arsenic was used as a popular medicine, tonic, and aphrodisiac since the 18th century. Recall that the 1908 Nobel Prize in medicine was awarded to Paul Ehrlich, in part, for the discovery of an organoarsenical (Salvarsan) as a treatment for syphilis—this was arguably also the first documented application of what would later become known as “chemotherapy.” Readers are then often reminded that arsenic is still used today in pesticides and herbicides, in animal feed, as a wood preservative, in electronic devices, and in specialized medical treatments. Arsenic is toxic in both of its common oxidation states, the oxidized arsenate, As(V), and the reduced arsenite, As(III). As a molecular analog of phosphate, arsenate uses a phosphate transport system to enter the cell and there inhibits the phosphorylation of ADP and thereby the synthesis of ATP. Arsenate can also substitute for phosphate in various biomolecules, thus disrupting key pathways, including glycolysis. Arsenite is even more toxic than arsenate and enters the cell much like glycerol molecules via aqua-glyceroporins (Cullen …","PeriodicalId":49624,"journal":{"name":"Reviews in Mineralogy & Geochemistry","volume":"446 1","pages":"391-433"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2014-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"75807091","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Core-level and valence-level X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), developed in the late 1950’s and 1960’s by Siegbahn and coworkers (Siegbahn et al. 1969; Carlson 1975; Barr 1993; Fadley 2010) has become an invaluable tool over the last 40 years for studying mainly the surface properties and reactivity of a wide range of minerals, predominantly oxides (for reviews, see: Heinrich and Cox 1994; Chambers 2000; Salmeron and Schlogl 2008, and references in Bancroft et al. 2009; Newburg et al. 2011), sulfides (for reviews, see Hochella 1988; Bancroft and Hyland 1990; Nesbitt 2002; Murphy and Strongin 2009) and silicates (for a review see Hochella 1988; references in Biino and Groning 1998; Oelkers 2001; Zakaznova-Herzog et al. 2008). The large majority of these studies have focused on the first few surface monolayers of the minerals because of the surface sensitivity of the technique (~2–20 monolayers for photon energies of ≤ 1486 eV (Hochella 1988; Nesbitt 2002), and in many such cases, XPS has become the technique of choice for surface studies. Silicate XPS studies generally have focused on three surface applications outlined by Hochella (1988): (1) studies of the oxidation state of near surface atoms (e.g., Fe); (2) studies of sorption reactions on mineral surfaces; and (3) studies of the alteration and weathering of mineral surfaces. Fewer reports have focused on the fourth application of Hochella (1988), the study of the bulk atomic structure and chemical state properties of minerals and glasses. This is surprising perhaps, because the large majority (usually >90 %) of XPS line intensities comes from the bulk mineral in XPS studies using the typical laboratory Al K α X-ray sources (1486.6 eV). To emphasize this point, the surface S 2 p peaks from the …
核能级和价能级x射线光电子能谱(XPS)，在20世纪50年代末和60年代由Siegbahn及其同事(Siegbahn et al. 1969;卡尔森1975;巴尔1993;Fadley 2010)已成为一个宝贵的工具，在过去的40年里，主要用于研究各种矿物的表面性质和反应性，主要是氧化物(评论见:Heinrich和Cox 1994;室2000;Salmeron and Schlogl 2008，以及Bancroft et al. 2009的参考文献;Newburg et al. 2011)，硫化物(评论见Hochella 1988;Bancroft and Hyland 1990;奈斯比特2002;Murphy and Strongin 2009)和硅酸盐(回顾见Hochella 1988;Biino和Groning 1998中的参考文献;Oelkers 2001;Zakaznova-Herzog et al. 2008)。这些研究的大部分都集中在矿物的前几个表面单层上，因为该技术的表面灵敏度(~ 2-20个单层，光子能量≤1486 eV) (Hochella 1988;Nesbitt 2002)，在许多这样的情况下，XPS已经成为表面研究的首选技术。硅酸盐XPS研究一般集中在Hochella(1988)概述的三种表面应用上:(1)近表面原子(如铁)的氧化态研究;(2)矿物表面吸附反应的研究;(3)矿物表面蚀变和风化的研究。较少的报道集中在Hochella(1988)的第四种应用，即对矿物和玻璃的体原子结构和化学状态性质的研究。这可能是令人惊讶的，因为在使用典型的实验室Al K α x射线源(1486.6 eV)进行的XPS研究中，XPS线强度的绝大多数(通常为bb0 - 90%)来自大块矿物。为了强调这一点，表面s2p从…
{"title":"High Resolution Core- and Valence-Level XPS Studies of the Properties (Structural, Chemical and Bonding) of Silicate Minerals and Glasses","authors":"H. Nesbitt, G. Bancroft","doi":"10.2138/RMG.2014.78.7","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2138/RMG.2014.78.7","url":null,"abstract":"Core-level and valence-level X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), developed in the late 1950’s and 1960’s by Siegbahn and coworkers (Siegbahn et al. 1969; Carlson 1975; Barr 1993; Fadley 2010) has become an invaluable tool over the last 40 years for studying mainly the surface properties and reactivity of a wide range of minerals, predominantly oxides (for reviews, see: Heinrich and Cox 1994; Chambers 2000; Salmeron and Schlogl 2008, and references in Bancroft et al. 2009; Newburg et al. 2011), sulfides (for reviews, see Hochella 1988; Bancroft and Hyland 1990; Nesbitt 2002; Murphy and Strongin 2009) and silicates (for a review see Hochella 1988; references in Biino and Groning 1998; Oelkers 2001; Zakaznova-Herzog et al. 2008). The large majority of these studies have focused on the first few surface monolayers of the minerals because of the surface sensitivity of the technique (~2–20 monolayers for photon energies of ≤ 1486 eV (Hochella 1988; Nesbitt 2002), and in many such cases, XPS has become the technique of choice for surface studies. Silicate XPS studies generally have focused on three surface applications outlined by Hochella (1988): (1) studies of the oxidation state of near surface atoms (e.g., Fe); (2) studies of sorption reactions on mineral surfaces; and (3) studies of the alteration and weathering of mineral surfaces. Fewer reports have focused on the fourth application of Hochella (1988), the study of the bulk atomic structure and chemical state properties of minerals and glasses. This is surprising perhaps, because the large majority (usually >90 %) of XPS line intensities comes from the bulk mineral in XPS studies using the typical laboratory Al K α X-ray sources (1486.6 eV). To emphasize this point, the surface S 2 p peaks from the …","PeriodicalId":49624,"journal":{"name":"Reviews in Mineralogy & Geochemistry","volume":"95 1 1","pages":"271-329"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2014-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"86179376","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The previous Reviews in Mineralogy volume on spectroscopic methods (Vol. 18 Spectroscopic Methods in Mineralogy and Geology , Frank C. Hawthorne, ed. 1988), contained a single chapter on X-ray absorption spectroscopy which reviewed aspects of both EXAFS (Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure) and XANES (X-ray Absorption Near-Edge Structure) (Brown et al. 1988, Chapter 11) However, since publication of that review there have been considerable advances in our understanding of XANES theory and applications. Hence EXAFS and XANES have been separated into their own individual chapters in the current volume. In this chapter we endeavor to bring the reader up to date with regard to current XANES theories, as well as, introducing them to the common applications of the technique in mineralogy, geochemistry and materials science. There have been several reviews of XANES (cf., Brown et al. 1988, Brown and Parks 1989, Manceau et al. 2002, Brown and Sturchio 2002, Mottana 2004, Rehr and Ankudinov 2005, de Groot 2001, 2005, and papers therein). In this chapter on XANES it is not our intention to provide a comprehensive review of all the XANES studies since 1988 but to summarize what X-ray edges are commonly investigated and what one can expect to be able to extract from the data. The reader is also advised to read the chapters in this volume on analytical transmission electron microscopy by Brydson et al. (2014, this volume) where (core level) electron energy loss (EELS) spectroscopy is discussed, and by Lee et al. (2014, this volume) on X-ray Raman spectroscopy (XRS), as these techniques provide element specific information similar to XANES. X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy using synchrotron radiation is a well-established technique providing information on the electronic, structural and magnetic properties of matter. In XANES, …
之前的矿物学光谱方法评论卷(第18卷矿物学和地质学中的光谱方法，Frank C. Hawthorne, 1988年编)包含了一个关于x射线吸收光谱的单独章节，该章节回顾了EXAFS(扩展x射线吸收精细结构)和XANES (x射线吸收近边缘结构)(Brown等人，1988年，第11章)。自该评论发表以来，我们对XANES理论和应用的理解取得了相当大的进展。因此，EXAFS和XANES在本卷中被分成各自的章节。在本章中，我们努力使读者了解当前XANES理论的最新情况，并向他们介绍该技术在矿物学，地球化学和材料科学中的常见应用。关于XANES已有几篇综述(参见Brown et al. 1988, Brown and Parks 1989, Manceau et al. 2002, Brown and Sturchio 2002, Mottana 2004, Rehr and Ankudinov 2005, de Groot 2001, 2005，以及其中的论文)。在关于XANES的这一章中，我们的意图不是提供自1988年以来所有XANES研究的全面回顾，而是总结通常调查的x射线边缘以及人们可以期望能够从数据中提取的内容。还建议读者阅读本卷中Brydson等人(2014年，本卷)关于分析透射电子显微镜的章节，其中讨论了(核心水平)电子能量损失(EELS)光谱，以及Lee等人(2014年，本卷)关于x射线拉曼光谱(XRS)的章节，因为这些技术提供了类似于XANES的元素特定信息。使用同步辐射的x射线吸收近边结构(XANES)光谱是一种成熟的技术，可以提供有关物质的电子，结构和磁性质的信息。在XANES中，…
{"title":"X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy","authors":"G. Henderson, F. Groot, B. Moulton","doi":"10.2138/RMG.2014.78.3","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2138/RMG.2014.78.3","url":null,"abstract":"The previous Reviews in Mineralogy volume on spectroscopic methods (Vol. 18 Spectroscopic Methods in Mineralogy and Geology , Frank C. Hawthorne, ed. 1988), contained a single chapter on X-ray absorption spectroscopy which reviewed aspects of both EXAFS (Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure) and XANES (X-ray Absorption Near-Edge Structure) (Brown et al. 1988, Chapter 11) However, since publication of that review there have been considerable advances in our understanding of XANES theory and applications. Hence EXAFS and XANES have been separated into their own individual chapters in the current volume. In this chapter we endeavor to bring the reader up to date with regard to current XANES theories, as well as, introducing them to the common applications of the technique in mineralogy, geochemistry and materials science. There have been several reviews of XANES (cf., Brown et al. 1988, Brown and Parks 1989, Manceau et al. 2002, Brown and Sturchio 2002, Mottana 2004, Rehr and Ankudinov 2005, de Groot 2001, 2005, and papers therein). In this chapter on XANES it is not our intention to provide a comprehensive review of all the XANES studies since 1988 but to summarize what X-ray edges are commonly investigated and what one can expect to be able to extract from the data. The reader is also advised to read the chapters in this volume on analytical transmission electron microscopy by Brydson et al. (2014, this volume) where (core level) electron energy loss (EELS) spectroscopy is discussed, and by Lee et al. (2014, this volume) on X-ray Raman spectroscopy (XRS), as these techniques provide element specific information similar to XANES. X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy using synchrotron radiation is a well-established technique providing information on the electronic, structural and magnetic properties of matter. In XANES, …","PeriodicalId":49624,"journal":{"name":"Reviews in Mineralogy & Geochemistry","volume":"158 1","pages":"75-138"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2014-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"76493691","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The case of the Giant mine illustrates how a large, long-lived Au mine has resulted in a complex regional legacy of As contamination and an estimated remediation cost of almost one billion Canadian dollars (AANDC 2012). The mine, located a few km north of the city of Yellowknife on the shore of Great Slave Lake (Figs. 1, 2) produced more than 7 million troy ounces of Au (approximately 220 tonnes) from a largely underground operation. Giant mine was the largest producer in the Yellowknife greenstone belt, which produced more than12 million troy ounces (~370 tonnes) in total (Bullen and Robb 2006). Arsenopyrite-bearing Au ore was roasted from 1949 to 1999 as a pretreatment for cyanidation (Fig. 3a). Poor or nonexistent emission controls in the early years resulted in the release of an estimated 20,000 tonnes of roaster-generated As2O3 to the surrounding environment through stack emissions (CPHA 1977; Wrye 2008). Over the lifetime of the mine, however, most of the As2O3 (237,000 tonnes) was stored in underground chambers (Fig. 3b) and is a now an ongoing source of As to groundwater and surface water (INAC 2007; Jamieson et al. 2013). Other roaster products include As-bearing maghemite and hematite (calcine) were deposited with tailings and re-mobilized into creek and lake sediments. Under reducing conditions, post-depositional remobilization of As associated with roaster-generated Fe oxides results in release of As to sediment pore water and reprecipitation of some As as a sulfide phase (Fawcett and Jamieson 2011). However, As(III) in maghemite and As2O3 persists in the oxidizing conditions of near-surface tailings and soils (Walker et al. 2005; Jamieson et al. 2013). Ore roasting increases the solubility, toxicity, and bioaccessibility of As by converting sulfide-hosted As to oxide-hosted As. At Giant, …
Giant金矿的案例说明了一个大型、长寿的金矿如何导致了复杂的砷污染的地区遗产，估计修复成本近10亿加元(AANDC 2012)。该矿位于大奴湖(Great Slave Lake)岸边耶洛奈夫市(Yellowknife)以北几公里处(图1、2)，主要是地下开采，生产了700多万金衡盎司(约220吨)的金。Giant矿山是Yellowknife绿石带最大的生产商，总产量超过1200万金衡盎司(约370吨)(bulen and Robb 2006)。从1949年到1999年，作为氰化预处理，对含砷黄铁矿的金矿进行了焙烧(图3a)。在最初的几年里，不良的或不存在的排放控制导致大约20,000吨的焙烧产生的As2O3通过烟囱排放到周围环境中(cfa 1977;Wrye 2008)。然而，在矿山的生命周期内，大部分As2O3(237,000吨)被储存在地下室中(图3b)，现在是地下水和地表水的持续As来源(INAC 2007;Jamieson et al. 2013)。其他焙烧产物包括含砷的磁铁矿和赤铁矿(煅烧)与尾矿一起沉积，并重新动员成小溪和湖泊沉积物。在还原条件下，与焙烧产生的铁氧化物相关的砷沉积后再活化导致砷释放到沉积物孔隙水中，并以硫化物相的形式再沉淀一些砷(Fawcett和Jamieson 2011)。然而，磁赤铁矿和As2O3中的As(III)在近地表尾矿和土壤的氧化条件下持续存在(Walker et al. 2005;Jamieson et al. 2013)。矿石焙烧通过将硫化物为主的砷转化为氧化物为主的砷，增加了砷的溶解度、毒性和生物可及性。在巨人公司，……
{"title":"The Legacy of Arsenic Contamination from Mining and Processing Refractory Gold Ore at Giant Mine, Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, Canada","authors":"H. Jamieson","doi":"10.2138/RMG.2014.79.12","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2138/RMG.2014.79.12","url":null,"abstract":"The case of the Giant mine illustrates how a large, long-lived Au mine has resulted in a complex regional legacy of As contamination and an estimated remediation cost of almost one billion Canadian dollars (AANDC 2012). The mine, located a few km north of the city of Yellowknife on the shore of Great Slave Lake (Figs. 1, 2) produced more than 7 million troy ounces of Au (approximately 220 tonnes) from a largely underground operation. Giant mine was the largest producer in the Yellowknife greenstone belt, which produced more than12 million troy ounces (~370 tonnes) in total (Bullen and Robb 2006). Arsenopyrite-bearing Au ore was roasted from 1949 to 1999 as a pretreatment for cyanidation (Fig. 3a). Poor or nonexistent emission controls in the early years resulted in the release of an estimated 20,000 tonnes of roaster-generated As2O3 to the surrounding environment through stack emissions (CPHA 1977; Wrye 2008). Over the lifetime of the mine, however, most of the As2O3 (237,000 tonnes) was stored in underground chambers (Fig. 3b) and is a now an ongoing source of As to groundwater and surface water (INAC 2007; Jamieson et al. 2013). Other roaster products include As-bearing maghemite and hematite (calcine) were deposited with tailings and re-mobilized into creek and lake sediments. Under reducing conditions, post-depositional remobilization of As associated with roaster-generated Fe oxides results in release of As to sediment pore water and reprecipitation of some As as a sulfide phase (Fawcett and Jamieson 2011). However, As(III) in maghemite and As2O3 persists in the oxidizing conditions of near-surface tailings and soils (Walker et al. 2005; Jamieson et al. 2013). Ore roasting increases the solubility, toxicity, and bioaccessibility of As by converting sulfide-hosted As to oxide-hosted As. At Giant, …","PeriodicalId":49624,"journal":{"name":"Reviews in Mineralogy & Geochemistry","volume":"3 1","pages":"533-551"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2014-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"85123494","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) methods are now widely used for studying the structure and dynamics of solid, inorganic materials, including those central to the Earth sciences, as well as silicate melts and aqueous solutions. Spectra of minerals (as conveniently large single crystals) were collected soon after NMR was developed in the late 1940’s, and were instrumental in early refinements of the theory of NMR interactions in solids (Pound 1950; Petch et al. 1953). NMR on single crystals also provided important insights into issues such as symmetry distortion and phase transitions in minerals (Brun and Hafner 1962; Ghose 1964; Ghose and Tsang 1973). The critical, resolution-enhancing method of “magic-angle sample spinning” (MAS) was invented in the late 1950’s and demonstrated on NaCl (Andrew et al. 1959). However, it was not until the development of relatively high-field (e.g., 4.7 Tesla and above) superconducting magnets, and pulsed, Fourier-transform methods (requiring fast micro-computers) in the late 1970’s and early 1980’s that high-resolution NMR spectroscopy on nuclides such as 29Si and 27Al routinely started providing new structural information on minerals and glasses (Lippmaa et al. 1980; Smith et al. 1983; Magi et al. 1984). Technological advances continue to push the development of new applications of high resolution, solid-state NMR, for example magnets with fields of 21 T and even higher, MAS probes with spinning rates above 100 kHz (6 million revolutions per minute), and capabilities to observe high-quality spectra of ever-smaller samples (e.g., <1 mg). Probably more than any other commonly-applied spectroscopic methodology, NMR includes a wide array of techniques that allow the complex, and time-dependent, manipulation of the system under observation, in this case the nuclear spins of isotopes of many different elements. A rich variety of information about short-range (first and second atom neighbor distributions) and …
核磁共振(NMR)方法现在广泛用于研究固体、无机材料的结构和动力学，包括那些对地球科学至关重要的材料，以及硅酸盐熔体和水溶液。在20世纪40年代末核磁共振发展起来后不久，矿物的光谱(作为方便的大单晶)就被收集起来，并在固体中核磁共振相互作用理论的早期完善中发挥了重要作用(Pound 1950;Petch et al. 1953)。单晶核磁共振也提供了重要的见解问题，如对称畸变和相变在矿物(Brun和Hafner 1962;Ghose用1964;Ghose and Tsang, 1973)。“魔角样品纺丝”(MAS)是提高分辨率的关键方法，发明于20世纪50年代末，并在NaCl上进行了演示(Andrew et al. 1959)。然而，直到20世纪70年代末和80年代初，相对高场(例如4.7特斯拉及以上)超导磁体和脉冲傅立叶变换方法(需要快速微型计算机)的发展，29Si和27Al等核素的高分辨率核磁共振波谱才开始常规地提供矿物和玻璃的新结构信息(Lippmaa et al. 1980;Smith et al. 1983;Magi et al. 1984)。技术进步继续推动高分辨率固态核磁共振新应用的发展，例如21 T甚至更高磁场的磁体，旋转速率超过100 kHz(每分钟600万转)的MAS探针，以及观察更小样品(例如<1 mg)的高质量光谱的能力。可能比任何其他普遍应用的光谱方法，核磁共振包括广泛的技术，允许复杂的，和时间相关的，操作系统的观察，在这种情况下，许多不同元素的同位素的核自旋。丰富多样的关于短程(第一和第二原子邻近分布)和…
{"title":"NMR Spectroscopy of Inorganic Earth Materials","authors":"J. Stebbins, X. Xue","doi":"10.2138/RMG.2014.78.15","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2138/RMG.2014.78.15","url":null,"abstract":"Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) methods are now widely used for studying the structure and dynamics of solid, inorganic materials, including those central to the Earth sciences, as well as silicate melts and aqueous solutions. Spectra of minerals (as conveniently large single crystals) were collected soon after NMR was developed in the late 1940’s, and were instrumental in early refinements of the theory of NMR interactions in solids (Pound 1950; Petch et al. 1953). NMR on single crystals also provided important insights into issues such as symmetry distortion and phase transitions in minerals (Brun and Hafner 1962; Ghose 1964; Ghose and Tsang 1973). The critical, resolution-enhancing method of “magic-angle sample spinning” (MAS) was invented in the late 1950’s and demonstrated on NaCl (Andrew et al. 1959). However, it was not until the development of relatively high-field (e.g., 4.7 Tesla and above) superconducting magnets, and pulsed, Fourier-transform methods (requiring fast micro-computers) in the late 1970’s and early 1980’s that high-resolution NMR spectroscopy on nuclides such as 29Si and 27Al routinely started providing new structural information on minerals and glasses (Lippmaa et al. 1980; Smith et al. 1983; Magi et al. 1984). Technological advances continue to push the development of new applications of high resolution, solid-state NMR, for example magnets with fields of 21 T and even higher, MAS probes with spinning rates above 100 kHz (6 million revolutions per minute), and capabilities to observe high-quality spectra of ever-smaller samples (e.g., <1 mg). Probably more than any other commonly-applied spectroscopic methodology, NMR includes a wide array of techniques that allow the complex, and time-dependent, manipulation of the system under observation, in this case the nuclear spins of isotopes of many different elements. A rich variety of information about short-range (first and second atom neighbor distributions) and …","PeriodicalId":49624,"journal":{"name":"Reviews in Mineralogy & Geochemistry","volume":"60 1","pages":"605-653"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2014-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"80527351","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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