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Building compressed causal models of the world 建立世界的压缩因果模型
IF 3 2区 心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-10-19 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2024.101682
A given causal system can be represented in a variety of ways. How do agents determine which variables to include in their causal representations, and at what level of granularity? Using techniques from Bayesian networks, information theory, and decision theory, we develop a formal theory according to which causal representations reflect a trade-off between compression and informativeness, where the optimal trade-off depends on the decision-theoretic value of information for a given agent in a given context. This theory predicts that, all else being equal, agents prefer causal models that are as compressed as possible. When compression is associated with information loss, however, all else is not equal, and our theory predicts that agents will favor compressed models only when the information they sacrifice is not informative with respect to the agent’s anticipated decisions. We then show, across six studies reported here (N=2,364) and one study reported in the supplemental materials (N=182), that participants’ preferences over causal models are in keeping with the predictions of our theory. Our theory offers a unification of different dimensions of causal evaluation identified within the philosophy of science (proportionality and stability), and contributes to a more general picture of human cognition according to which the capacity to create compressed (causal) representations plays a central role.
一个给定的因果系统可以用多种方式表示。行为主体如何决定在其因果表征中包含哪些变量,以及在何种粒度水平上包含这些变量?利用贝叶斯网络、信息论和决策论的技术,我们提出了一个正式理论,根据该理论,因果关系表征反映了压缩与信息量之间的权衡,而最佳权衡取决于特定代理人在特定情境下的决策论信息价值。这一理论预测,在其他条件相同的情况下,代理人更喜欢尽可能压缩的因果模型。然而,当压缩与信息损失相关联时,其他条件就不一样了。我们的理论预测,只有当压缩模型所牺牲的信息对代理人的预期决策没有参考价值时,代理人才会青睐压缩模型。然后,我们通过本文报告的六项研究(N=2,364)和补充材料中报告的一项研究(N=182)表明,参与者对因果模型的偏好符合我们理论的预测。我们的理论统一了科学哲学中确定的因果评价的不同维度(比例性和稳定性),并有助于更全面地描述人类认知,根据这一认知,创建压缩(因果)表征的能力起着核心作用。
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引用次数: 0
Doing things efficiently: Testing an account of why simple explanations are satisfying 高效做事:测试简单解释令人满意的原因。
IF 3 2区 心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-10-07 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2024.101692
People often find simple explanations more satisfying than complex ones. Across seven preregistered experiments, we provide evidence that this simplicity preference is not specific to explanations and may instead arises from a broader tendency to prefer completing goals in efficient ways. In each experiment, participants (total N=2820) learned of simple and complex methods for producing an outcome, and judged which was more appealing—either as an explanation why the outcome happened, or as a process for producing it. Participants showed similar preferences across judgments. They preferred simple methods as explanations and processes in tasks with no statistical information about the reliability or pervasiveness of causal elements. But when this statistical information was provided, preferences for simple causes often diminished and reversed in both kinds of judgments. Together, these findings suggest that people may assess explanations much in the same ways they assess methods for completing goals, and that both kinds of judgments depend on the same cognitive mechanisms.
人们通常认为简单的解释比复杂的解释更令人满意。通过七项预先登记的实验,我们提供的证据表明,这种简单性偏好并不是解释所特有的,相反,它可能源于一种更广泛的倾向,即人们更倾向于以高效的方式完成目标。在每个实验中,参与者(总人数=2820)都了解了产生一个结果的简单方法和复杂方法,并判断哪种方法更有吸引力--无论是作为解释结果发生的原因,还是作为产生结果的过程。在不同的判断中,参与者表现出相似的偏好。在没有关于因果要素的可靠性或普遍性的统计信息的任务中,他们更喜欢简单的方法作为解释和过程。但当提供了这种统计信息时,在两种判断中,对简单原因的偏好往往会减弱或逆转。这些发现共同表明,人们评估解释的方式可能与评估完成目标的方法的方式大致相同,而且这两种判断都依赖于相同的认知机制。
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引用次数: 0
Perceptual inference corrects function word errors in reading: Errors that are not noticed do not disrupt eye movements 感知推理可纠正阅读中的功能词错误:未注意到的错误不会干扰眼球运动
IF 3 2区 心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-09-13 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2024.101691

Both everyday experience and laboratory research demonstrate that readers often fail to notice errors such as an omitted or repeated function word. This phenomenon challenges central tenets of reading and sentence processing models, according to which each word is lexically processed and incrementally integrated into a syntactic representation. One solution would propose that apparent failure to notice such errors reflects post-perceptual inference; the reader does initially perceive the error, but then unconsciously ’corrects’ the perceived string. Such a post-perceptual account predicts that when readers fail to explicitly notice an error, the error will nevertheless disrupt reading, at least fleetingly. We present a large-scale eyetracking experiment investigating whether disruption is detectable in the eye movement record when readers fail to notice an omitted or repeated two-letter function word in naturalistic sentences. Readers failed to notice both omission and repetition errors over 36% of the time. In an analysis that included all trials, both omission and repetition resulted in pronounced eye movement disruption, compared to reading of grammatical control sentences. But in an analysis including only trials on which readers failed to notice the errors, neither type of error disrupted eye movements on any measure. Indeed, there was evidence in some measures that reading was relatively fast on the trials on which errors were missed. It does not appear that when an error is not consciously noticed, it is initially perceived, and then later corrected; rather, linguistic knowledge influences what the reader perceives.

日常经验和实验室研究都表明,读者往往注意不到诸如功能词遗漏或重复等错误。这种现象对阅读和句子处理模型的核心原则提出了挑战,根据这些原则,每个单词都要经过词法处理并逐步整合到句法表征中。有一种解决方案认为,明显未注意到此类错误反映了后感知推理;读者最初确实感知到了错误,但随后会无意识地 "纠正 "感知到的字符串。这种感知后推理预测,当读者没有明确注意到错误时,错误仍会干扰阅读,至少是短暂的干扰。我们进行了一项大规模的眼动跟踪实验,研究当读者未能注意到自然句子中遗漏或重复的双字母功能词时,眼动记录是否会检测到阅读中断。有 36% 以上的时间,读者没有注意到遗漏和重复错误。在包括所有试验的分析中,与阅读语法对照句子相比,遗漏和重复都会导致明显的眼动干扰。但是,在仅包括读者没有注意到错误的试验的分析中,这两种错误在任何测量中都没有干扰眼动。事实上,有证据表明,在漏读错误的试验中,阅读速度相对较快。由此看来,当读者没有有意识地注意到错误时,并不是一开始就能感知到错误,然后再加以纠正;而是语言知识影响了读者的感知。
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引用次数: 0
Direct lexical control of eye movements in Chinese reading: Evidence from the co-registration of EEG and eye tracking 中文阅读中眼球运动的直接词汇控制:来自脑电图和眼动跟踪共同注册的证据
IF 3 2区 心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-09-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2024.101683

The direct-lexical-control hypothesis stipulates that some aspect of a word’s processing determines the duration of the fixation on that word and/or the next. Although the direct lexical control is incorporated into most current models of eye-movement control in reading, the precise implementation varies and the assumptions of the hypothesis may not be feasible given that lexical processing must occur rapidly enough to influence fixation durations. Conclusive empirical evidence supporting this hypothesis is therefore lacking. In this article, we report the results of an eye-tracking experiment using the boundary paradigm in which native speakers of Chinese read sentences in which target words were either high- or low-frequency and preceded by a valid or invalid preview. Eye movements were co-registered with electroencephalography, allowing standard analyses of eye-movement measures, divergence point analyses of fixation-duration distributions, and fixated-related potentials on the target words. These analyses collectively provide strong behavioral and neural evidence of early lexical processing and thus strong support for the direct-lexical-control hypothesis. We discuss the implications of the findings for our understanding of how the hypothesis might be implemented, the neural systems that support skilled reading, and the nature of eye-movement control in the reading of Chinese versus alphabetic scripts.

直接词汇控制假说认为,一个单词的某些处理过程决定了该单词和/或下一个单词的定格时间。尽管目前大多数阅读眼动控制模型中都包含了直接词汇控制,但精确的实现方式各不相同,而且由于词汇处理必须足够快才能影响到定影持续时间,因此该假说的假设可能并不可行。因此,目前还缺乏支持这一假设的确凿实证。在本文中,我们报告了使用边界范式进行眼动跟踪实验的结果。在该实验中,母语为中文的人阅读的句子中,目标词要么是高频词,要么是低频词,并且在目标词之前有一个有效或无效的预览。眼动与脑电共同注册,从而可以对眼动测量进行标准分析,对固定持续时间分布进行发散点分析,以及对目标词进行固定相关电位分析。这些分析共同为早期词汇加工提供了强有力的行为和神经证据,从而为直接词汇控制假说提供了强有力的支持。我们将讨论这些发现对我们理解如何实现该假说、支持熟练阅读的神经系统以及阅读中文和字母文字时眼动控制的性质的影响。
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引用次数: 0
Ethical choice reversals 伦理选择逆转。
IF 3 2区 心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-08-07 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2024.101672

Understanding the systematic ways that human decision making departs from normative principles has been important in the development of cognitive theory across multiple decision domains. We focus here on whether such seemingly “irrational” decisions occur in ethical decisions that impose difficult tradeoffs between the welfare and interests of different individuals or groups. Across three sets of experiments and in multiple decision scenarios, we provide clear evidence that contextual choice reversals arise in multiples types of ethical choice settings, in just the way that they do in other domains ranging from economic gambles to perceptual judgments (Trueblood et al., 2013; Wedell, 1991). Specifically, we find within-participant evidence for attraction effects in which choices between two options systematically vary as a function of features of a third dominated and unchosen option—a prima facie violation of rational choice axioms that demand consistency. Unlike economic gambles and most domains in which such effects have been studied, many of our ethical scenarios involve features that are not presented numerically, and features for which there is no clear majority-endorsed ranking. We provide empirical evidence and a novel modeling analysis based on individual differences of feature rankings within attributes to show that such individual variations partly explains observed variation in the attraction effects. We conclude by discussing how recent computational analyses of attraction effects may provide a basis for understanding how the observed patterns of choices reflect boundedly rational decision processes.

了解人类决策偏离规范性原则的系统性方式,对于多个决策领域的认知理论发展非常重要。在此,我们将重点关注这种看似 "非理性 "的决策是否会出现在伦理决策中,因为伦理决策会在不同个体或群体的福利和利益之间进行艰难的权衡。通过三组实验和多种决策情景,我们提供了明确的证据,证明在多种类型的道德选择环境中都会出现情境选择逆转,就像在从经济赌博到知觉判断等其他领域一样(Trueblood 等人,2013;Wedell,1991)。具体来说,我们发现了参与者内部的吸引效应证据,在这种效应中,两个选项之间的选择会随着第三个被支配且未被选择的选项的特征而发生系统性变化--这显然违反了要求一致性的理性选择公理。与经济博弈和大多数研究过此类效应的领域不同,我们的许多伦理情景涉及的特征并没有以数字形式呈现,也没有明确的多数人认可的排序。我们提供了经验证据和基于属性内特征排序个体差异的新颖建模分析,以说明这种个体差异可以部分解释所观察到的吸引力效应的变化。最后,我们讨论了最近对吸引力效应的计算分析如何为理解所观察到的选择模式如何反映有界理性决策过程提供了基础。
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引用次数: 0
Disentangling the roles of age and knowledge in early language acquisition: A fine-grained analysis of the vocabularies of infant and child language learners 厘清年龄和知识在早期语言习得中的作用:对婴儿和儿童语言学习者词汇的精细分析。
IF 3 2区 心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-08-03 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2024.101681

The words that children learn change over time in predictable ways. The first words that infants acquire are generally ones that are both frequent and highly imageable. Older infants also learn words that are more abstract and some that are less common. It is unclear whether this pattern is attributable to maturational factors (i.e., younger children lack sufficiently developed cognitive faculties needed to learn abstract words) or linguistic factors (i.e., younger children lack sufficient knowledge of their language to use grammatical or contextual cues needed to figure out the meaning of more abstract words). The present study explores this question by comparing vocabulary acquisition in 53 preschool-aged children (M = 51 months, range = 30–76 months) who were adopted from China and Eastern Europe after two and half years of age and 53 vocabulary-matched infant controls born and raised in English speaking families in North America (M = 24 months, range = 16–33 months). Vocabulary was assessed using the MB-CDI Words and Sentences form, word frequency was estimated from the CHILDES database, and imageability was measured using adult ratings of how easily words could be pictured mentally. Both groups were more likely to know words that were both highly frequent and imageable (resulting in an over-additive interaction). Knowledge of a word was also independently affected by the syntactic category that it belongs to. Adopted preschoolers’ vocabulary was slightly less affected by imageability. These findings were replicated in a comparison with a larger sample of vocabulary-matched controls drawn from the MB-CDI norming study (M = 22 months, range = 16–30 months; 33 girls). These results suggest that the patterns of acquisition in children’s early vocabulary are primarily driven by the accrual of linguistic knowledge, but that vocabulary may also be affected by differences in early life experiences or conceptual knowledge.

随着时间的推移,儿童学习的单词会发生可预测的变化。婴儿最先学会的单词一般都是频率高、形象性强的单词。大一点的婴儿也会学习更抽象的词和一些不太常见的词。目前还不清楚这种模式是由于成熟因素(即年龄较小的婴儿缺乏学习抽象词所需的足够发达的认知能力)还是语言因素(即年龄较小的婴儿缺乏足够的语言知识,无法利用语法或上下文线索来弄清较抽象词的含义)造成的。本研究通过比较 53 名两岁半后从中国和东欧收养的学龄前儿童(男=51 个月,女=30-76 个月)和 53 名在北美英语家庭出生并长大、词汇量相匹配的婴儿对照组(男=24 个月,女=16-33 个月)的词汇量掌握情况来探讨这一问题。词汇量使用 MB-CDI 单词和句子表格进行评估,单词频率根据 CHILDES 数据库进行估算,形象性则使用成人对单词在头脑中的容易想象程度进行的评分进行测量。两组受试者都更有可能认识词频高且形象性强的单词(产生了超加成的交互作用)。对单词的认识还受其所属句法类别的独立影响。被收养的学龄前儿童的词汇量受形象性的影响稍小。这些结果在与来自 MB-CDI 标准研究(中=22 个月,大=16-30 个月;33 个女孩)的更大样本词汇匹配对照组的比较中得到了验证。这些结果表明,儿童早期词汇的习得模式主要受语言知识积累的驱动,但词汇量也可能受到早期生活经验或概念知识差异的影响。
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引用次数: 0
How infants predict respect-based power 婴儿如何预测基于尊重的权力
IF 3 2区 心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-08-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2024.101671

Research has shown that infants represent legitimate leadership and predict continued obedience to authority, but which cues they use to do so remains unknown. Across eight pre-registered experiments varying the cue provided, we tested if Norwegian 21-month-olds (N=128) expected three protagonists to obey a character even in her absence. We assessed whether bowing for the character, receiving a tribute from or conferring a benefit to the protagonists, imposing a cost on them (forcefully taking a resource or hitting them), or relative physical size were used as cues to generate the expectation of continued obedience that marks legitimate leadership. Whereas bowing sufficed in generating such an expectation, we found positive Bayesian evidence that all the other cues did not. Norwegian infants unlikely have witnessed bowing in their everyday life. Hence, bowing/prostration as cue for continued obedience may form part of an early-developing capacity to represent leadership built by evolution.

研究表明,婴儿能够代表合法的领导,并预测对权威的持续服从,但他们使用哪些线索来这样做仍是未知数。通过八项预先登记的实验,我们测试了挪威21个月大的婴儿(人数=128)是否希望三个主角在她不在场的情况下也服从她。我们评估了为角色鞠躬、接受主人公的贡品或给予主人公好处、对主人公施加代价(强行夺取资源或殴打主人公)或相对体型是否可作为线索,以产生持续服从的期望,这标志着合法的领导地位。虽然鞠躬足以产生这种期望,但我们发现正贝叶斯证据表明,所有其他线索都不足以产生这种期望。挪威婴儿在日常生活中不太可能目睹过鞠躬。因此,鞠躬/匍匐作为继续服从的提示,可能是进化过程中形成的早期领导能力的一部分。
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引用次数: 0
Recruitment of magnitude representations to understand graded words 利用量级表征来理解分级词。
IF 3 2区 心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-08-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2024.101673

Language understanding and mathematics understanding are two fundamental forms of human thinking. Prior research has largely focused on the question of how language shapes mathematical thinking. The current study considers the converse question. Specifically, it investigates whether the magnitude representations that are thought to anchor understanding of number are also recruited to understand the meanings of graded words. These are words that come in scales (e.g., Anger) whose members can be ordered by the degree to which they possess the defining property (e.g., calm, annoyed, angry, furious). Experiment 1 uses the comparison paradigm to find evidence that the distance, ratio, and boundary effects that are taken as evidence of the recruitment of magnitude representations extend from numbers to words. Experiment 2 uses a similarity rating paradigm and multi-dimensional scaling to find converging evidence for these effects in graded word understanding. Experiment 3 evaluates an alternative hypothesis – that these effects for graded words simply reflect the statistical structure of the linguistic environment – by using machine learning models of distributional word semantics: LSA, word2vec, GloVe, counterfitted word vectors, BERT, RoBERTa, and GPT-2. These models fail to show the full pattern of effects observed of humans in Experiment 2, suggesting that more is needed than mere statistics. This research paves the way for further investigations of the role of magnitude representations in sentence and text comprehension, and of the question of whether language understanding and number understanding draw on shared or independent magnitude representations. It also informs the role of machine learning models in cognitive psychology research.

语言理解和数学理解是人类思维的两种基本形式。以往的研究主要集中在语言如何影响数学思维的问题上。本研究则考虑了相反的问题。具体来说,本研究调查了被认为能巩固对数字理解的大小表征是否也能用来理解分级词的含义。这些分级词(如 "愤怒")可以根据词的定义属性(如 "平静"、"恼怒"、"生气"、"愤怒")的程度来排序。实验 1 使用比较范式来寻找证据,以证明距离、比率和边界效应可作为量级表征招募的证据,这些效应可从数字扩展到词语。实验 2 采用相似性评级范式和多维标度,在分级词语理解中找到这些效应的趋同证据。实验 3 评估了另一种假设,即这些对分级词的影响仅仅反映了语言环境的统计结构,方法是使用分布式词语义的机器学习模型:这些模型包括:LSA、word2vec、GloVe、反拟合词向量、BERT、RoBERTa 和 GPT-2。这些模型未能显示出在实验 2 中观察到的人类效应的全部模式,这表明我们需要的不仅仅是统计数据。这项研究为进一步研究量级表征在句子和文本理解中的作用,以及语言理解和数字理解是利用共享还是独立的量级表征这一问题铺平了道路。它还为机器学习模型在认知心理学研究中的作用提供了参考。
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引用次数: 0
Task imprinting: Another mechanism of representational change? 任务印记:表象变化的另一种机制?
IF 3 2区 心理学 Q1 PSYCHOLOGY Pub Date : 2024-07-13 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2024.101670
Mirko Thalmann , Theo A.J. Schäfer , Stephanie Theves , Christian F. Doeller , Eric Schulz

Research from several areas suggests that mental representations adapt to the specific tasks we carry out in our environment. In this study, we propose a mechanism of adaptive representational change, task imprinting. Thereby, we introduce a computational model, which portrays task imprinting as an adaptation to specific task goals via selective storage of helpful representations in long-term memory. We test the main qualitative prediction of the model in four behavioral experiments using healthy young adults as participants. In each experiment, we assess participants’ baseline representations in the beginning of the experiment, then expose participants to one of two tasks intended to shape representations differently according to our model, and finally assess any potential change in representations. Crucially, the tasks used to measure representations differ in the amount that strategic, judgmental processes play a role. The results of Experiments 1 and 2 allow us to exclude the option that representations used in more perceptual tasks become biased categorically. The results of Experiment 4 make it likely that people strategically decide given the specific task context whether they use categorical information or not. One signature of representational change was however observed: category learning practice increased the perceptual sensitivity over and above mere exposure to the same stimuli.

多个领域的研究表明,心理表征能适应我们在环境中执行的特定任务。在本研究中,我们提出了一种适应性表征变化机制--任务印记。因此,我们引入了一个计算模型,该模型将任务印记描述为通过在长期记忆中选择性地存储有用的表征来适应特定的任务目标。我们以健康的年轻人为实验对象,通过四项行为实验来验证该模型的主要定性预测。在每个实验中,我们在实验开始时评估参与者的基线表征,然后让参与者接受两个任务中的一个,目的是根据我们的模型塑造不同的表征,最后评估表征的任何潜在变化。最重要的是,用于测量表征的任务在策略性判断过程中所起的作用不同。实验 1 和实验 2 的结果让我们排除了在感知性更强的任务中使用的表征会出现分类偏差的可能性。而实验 4 的结果则表明,人们很可能是根据具体的任务情境,战略性地决定是否使用分类信息。不过,我们还是观察到了表征变化的一个特征:类别学习练习提高了知觉敏感度,而不仅仅是暴露于相同的刺激之下。
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引用次数: 0
The fusion point of temporal binding: Promises and perils of multisensory accounts 时间绑定的融合点:多感官账户的承诺与危险
IF 2.6 2区 心理学 Q1 Social Sciences Pub Date : 2024-05-20 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2024.101662
Annika L. Klaffehn , Oliver Herbort , Roland Pfister

Performing an action to initiate a consequence in the environment triggers the perceptual illusion of temporal binding. This phenomenon entails that actions and following effects are perceived to occur closer in time than they do outside the action-effect relationship. Here we ask whether temporal binding can be explained in terms of multisensory integration, by assuming either multisensory fusion or partial integration of the two events. We gathered two datasets featuring a wide range of action-effect delays as a key factor influencing integration. We then tested the fit of a computational model for multisensory integration, the statistically optimal cue integration (SOCI) model. Indeed, qualitative aspects of the data on a group-level followed the principles of a multisensory account. By contrast, quantitative evidence from a comprehensive model evaluation indicated that temporal binding cannot be reduced to multisensory integration. Rather, multisensory integration should be seen as one of several component processes underlying temporal binding on an individual level.

在环境中执行一个动作来启动一个结果,会引发时间绑定的知觉错觉。这种现象意味着,行动和后续效应在时间上被认为比在行动-效应关系之外发生的时间更接近。在这里,我们要问的是,假定两个事件是多感官融合或部分融合,那么时间结合是否可以用多感官融合来解释。我们收集了两个数据集,其特点是行动效应延迟范围广泛,这是影响整合的关键因素。然后,我们测试了多感官融合计算模型--统计最优线索融合模型(SOCI)的拟合程度。事实上,群体层面的定性数据遵循了多感官解释的原则。相比之下,综合模型评估的定量证据表明,时间结合不能简化为多感官整合。相反,多感官统合应被视为个体层面时间结合的几个基本过程之一。
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引用次数: 0
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Cognitive Psychology
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