Pub Date : 2024-07-07DOI: 10.3390/instruments8030037
Aditya Nechiyil, Robert Lee, Gregg Chapman
The counterfeiting of integrated circuits (ICs) has been a growing issue. Current available methods used to detect counterfeit ICs can be expensive, imprecise, and time-consuming. This paper explores the resonant cavity system: a non-contact, non-destructive method to rapidly differentiate counterfeit ICs from authentic ones. The system captures a unique signature of an IC placed inside it. Data were captured for ICs of various technologies and authenticities. The data included return loss values captured at various transverse electric (TE) modes between 2.8 GHz and 6 GHz. This allowed for the comparison of the effectiveness of the various TE modes in being able to distinguish ICs. The resonant cavity system was able to distinguish most of the ICs at higher TE modes.
集成电路（IC）造假问题日益严重。目前可用来检测假冒集成电路的方法昂贵、不精确且耗时。本文探讨了谐振腔系统：一种非接触、非破坏性的方法，用于快速区分假冒集成电路和真品。该系统能捕捉放置在其中的集成电路的独特签名。该系统采集了各种技术和真伪集成电路的数据。数据包括在 2.8 千兆赫和 6 千兆赫之间的各种横向电（TE）模式下捕获的回波损耗值。这样就可以比较各种 TE 模式在区分集成电路方面的有效性。谐振腔系统能够在较高的 TE 模式下分辨出大多数集成电路。
{"title":"A Rapid, Non-Destructive Method to Detect Counterfeit Integrated Circuits Using a Resonant Cavity System","authors":"Aditya Nechiyil, Robert Lee, Gregg Chapman","doi":"10.3390/instruments8030037","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments8030037","url":null,"abstract":"The counterfeiting of integrated circuits (ICs) has been a growing issue. Current available methods used to detect counterfeit ICs can be expensive, imprecise, and time-consuming. This paper explores the resonant cavity system: a non-contact, non-destructive method to rapidly differentiate counterfeit ICs from authentic ones. The system captures a unique signature of an IC placed inside it. Data were captured for ICs of various technologies and authenticities. The data included return loss values captured at various transverse electric (TE) modes between 2.8 GHz and 6 GHz. This allowed for the comparison of the effectiveness of the various TE modes in being able to distinguish ICs. The resonant cavity system was able to distinguish most of the ICs at higher TE modes.","PeriodicalId":507788,"journal":{"name":"Instruments","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-07-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141671014","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-05-04DOI: 10.3390/instruments8020031
Luis Fariña, K. Lathika, G. Lucchetta, Monong Yu, Joan Boix, L. Cardiel-Sas, Oscar Blanch, Manel Martinez, Javier Rico
The High Energy cosmic-Radiation Detection (HERD) facility has been proposed as one of the main experiments on board the Chinese space station. HERD is scheduled to be installed around 2027 and to operate for at least 10 years. Its main scientific goals are the study of the cosmic ray spectrum and composition up to the PeV energy range, indirect dark matter detection, and all-sky gamma-ray observation above 100 MeV. HERD features a novel design in order to optimize its acceptance per weight, with a central 3D imaging calorimeter surrounded on top and on its four lateral sides by complementary subdetectors. A dedicated trigger, dubbed the ultra-low-energy gamma-ray (ULEG) trigger, is required to enable the detection of gamma rays down to ~100 MeV. The ULEG trigger design is based upon the search for energy deposition patterns on the tracker and the anticoincidence shield, compatible with the conversion of a gamma ray within the tracker volume and resulting in enough tracker hits to allow for a good-quality gamma-ray direction reconstruction. We describe the current status of the design of the ULEG trigger system. We also characterize its performance in detecting gamma rays as inferred from Monte Carlo studies.
{"title":"Design and Performance of a Low-Energy Gamma-Ray Trigger System for HERD","authors":"Luis Fariña, K. Lathika, G. Lucchetta, Monong Yu, Joan Boix, L. Cardiel-Sas, Oscar Blanch, Manel Martinez, Javier Rico","doi":"10.3390/instruments8020031","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments8020031","url":null,"abstract":"The High Energy cosmic-Radiation Detection (HERD) facility has been proposed as one of the main experiments on board the Chinese space station. HERD is scheduled to be installed around 2027 and to operate for at least 10 years. Its main scientific goals are the study of the cosmic ray spectrum and composition up to the PeV energy range, indirect dark matter detection, and all-sky gamma-ray observation above 100 MeV. HERD features a novel design in order to optimize its acceptance per weight, with a central 3D imaging calorimeter surrounded on top and on its four lateral sides by complementary subdetectors. A dedicated trigger, dubbed the ultra-low-energy gamma-ray (ULEG) trigger, is required to enable the detection of gamma rays down to ~100 MeV. The ULEG trigger design is based upon the search for energy deposition patterns on the tracker and the anticoincidence shield, compatible with the conversion of a gamma ray within the tracker volume and resulting in enough tracker hits to allow for a good-quality gamma-ray direction reconstruction. We describe the current status of the design of the ULEG trigger system. We also characterize its performance in detecting gamma rays as inferred from Monte Carlo studies.","PeriodicalId":507788,"journal":{"name":"Instruments","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-05-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141013419","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-03-29DOI: 10.3390/instruments8020027
Ashish Bisht, Leo Cavazzini, Matteo Centis Vignali, Fabiola Caso, O. Hammad Ali, F. Ficorella, Maurizio Boscardin, Giovanni Paternoster
This work explores the possibility of using Low Gain Avalanche Diodes (LGADs) for tracker-based experiments studying Charged Cosmic Rays (CCRs) in space. While conventional silicon microstrip sensors provide only spatial information about the charged particle passing through the tracker, LGADs have the potential to provide additional timing information with a resolution in the order of tens of picoseconds. For the first time, it has been demonstrated that an LGAD with an active area of approximately 1 cm2 can achieve a jitter of less than 40 ps. A comparison of design and gain layers is carried out to understand which provides the best time resolution. For this purpose, laboratory measurements of sensors’ electrical properties and gain using LED and an Infrared laser, as well as their jitter, were performed.
这项工作探索了将低增益雪崩二极管（LGAD）用于基于跟踪器的太空带电宇宙射线（CCR）研究实验的可能性。传统的硅微带传感器只能提供通过跟踪器的带电粒子的空间信息，而低增益雪崩二极管则有可能提供分辨率为几十皮秒的额外时间信息。研究首次证明，有效面积约为 1 平方厘米的 LGAD 可以实现小于 40 ps 的抖动。我们对设计层和增益层进行了比较，以了解哪种设计能提供最佳的时间分辨率。为此，使用 LED 和红外激光对传感器的电气特性和增益及其抖动进行了实验室测量。
{"title":"Jitter Measurements of 1 cm2 LGADs for Space Experiments","authors":"Ashish Bisht, Leo Cavazzini, Matteo Centis Vignali, Fabiola Caso, O. Hammad Ali, F. Ficorella, Maurizio Boscardin, Giovanni Paternoster","doi":"10.3390/instruments8020027","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments8020027","url":null,"abstract":"This work explores the possibility of using Low Gain Avalanche Diodes (LGADs) for tracker-based experiments studying Charged Cosmic Rays (CCRs) in space. While conventional silicon microstrip sensors provide only spatial information about the charged particle passing through the tracker, LGADs have the potential to provide additional timing information with a resolution in the order of tens of picoseconds. For the first time, it has been demonstrated that an LGAD with an active area of approximately 1 cm2 can achieve a jitter of less than 40 ps. A comparison of design and gain layers is carried out to understand which provides the best time resolution. For this purpose, laboratory measurements of sensors’ electrical properties and gain using LED and an Infrared laser, as well as their jitter, were performed.","PeriodicalId":507788,"journal":{"name":"Instruments","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-03-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140364813","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-03-28DOI: 10.3390/instruments8020026
Guoliang Sun, Tingting Guo, Bao Yuan, Xiaojing Yang, Guang Wang
The sample environment is essential to neutron scattering experiments as it induces the sample under study into a phase or state of particular interest. Various sample environments have been developed, yet the high-voltage electric field has rarely been documented. In this study, Bruce electrodes with various sectional geometries and chamber sizes were examined by using simulation modeling based on ANSYS Maxwell. A large uniform field region where samples would sit could be achieved in the planar region for all specifications, but the size of the region and the field strength varied with the gap distance between electrodes. The edging effect was inherently observed even for bare electrodes, about 1.7% higher in the sinusoidal region than the planar region, and was significantly deteriorated when a chamber was applied. This effect, however, presented an exponential decrease as the minimum distance between the electrode edge and the chamber shell increased. A compromise between the spatial confinement and the achievable field (strength and uniform region) could be reached according to the unique applicability of neutron instruments. This research provides a theoretical basis for the subsequent design and manufacturing of high-voltage sample environment devices.
{"title":"Development of High-Voltage Electrodes for Neutron Scattering Sample Environment Devices","authors":"Guoliang Sun, Tingting Guo, Bao Yuan, Xiaojing Yang, Guang Wang","doi":"10.3390/instruments8020026","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments8020026","url":null,"abstract":"The sample environment is essential to neutron scattering experiments as it induces the sample under study into a phase or state of particular interest. Various sample environments have been developed, yet the high-voltage electric field has rarely been documented. In this study, Bruce electrodes with various sectional geometries and chamber sizes were examined by using simulation modeling based on ANSYS Maxwell. A large uniform field region where samples would sit could be achieved in the planar region for all specifications, but the size of the region and the field strength varied with the gap distance between electrodes. The edging effect was inherently observed even for bare electrodes, about 1.7% higher in the sinusoidal region than the planar region, and was significantly deteriorated when a chamber was applied. This effect, however, presented an exponential decrease as the minimum distance between the electrode edge and the chamber shell increased. A compromise between the spatial confinement and the achievable field (strength and uniform region) could be reached according to the unique applicability of neutron instruments. This research provides a theoretical basis for the subsequent design and manufacturing of high-voltage sample environment devices.","PeriodicalId":507788,"journal":{"name":"Instruments","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-03-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140372112","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-03-25DOI: 10.3390/instruments8020025
P. Soffitta
An observatory dedicated to X-ray polarimetry has been operational since 9 December 2021. The Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE), a collaboration between NASA and ASI, features three X-ray telescopes equipped with detectors sensitive to linear polarization set to 120°. This marks the first instance of a three-telescope SMEX mission. Upon reaching orbit, an extending boom was deployed, extending the optics and detector to a focal length of 4 m. IXPE targets each celestial source through dithering observations. This method is essential for supporting on-ground calibrations by averaging the detector’s response across a section of its sensitive plane. The spacecraft supplies power, enables attitude determination for subsequent on-ground attitude reconstruction, and issues control commands. After two years of observation, IXPE has detected significant linear polarization from nearly all classes of celestial sources emitting X-rays. This paper outlines the IXPE mission’s achievements after two years of operation in orbit. In addition, we report developments for future high-throughput X-ray optics that will have much smaller dead-times by using a new generation of Applied Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC), and may provide 3D reconstruction of photo-electron tracks.
一个专门用于 X 射线偏振测量的观测站自 2021 年 12 月 9 日起开始运行。成像 X 射线偏振探测仪（IXPE）是美国航天局和意大利航天局的合作项目，配备了三台 X 射线望远镜，探测器对线性偏振设置为 120°非常敏感。这标志着三台望远镜 SMEX 任务的首次尝试。IXPE 通过抖动观测瞄准每个天体源。这种方法对支持地面校准至关重要，因为它可以对探测器灵敏平面上的一段探测器响应进行平均。航天器提供电源，为随后的地面姿态重建确定姿态，并发出控制指令。经过两年的观测，IXPE 已经从几乎所有类别的天体发射 X 射线源中探测到明显的线性偏振。本文概述了 IXPE 在轨运行两年后取得的成就。此外，我们还报告了未来高通量 X 射线光学系统的发展情况，通过使用新一代应用专用集成电路（ASIC），这种光学系统的死区时间将大大缩短，并可提供光电子轨迹的三维重建。
{"title":"The Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE) and New Directions for the Future","authors":"P. Soffitta","doi":"10.3390/instruments8020025","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments8020025","url":null,"abstract":"An observatory dedicated to X-ray polarimetry has been operational since 9 December 2021. The Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE), a collaboration between NASA and ASI, features three X-ray telescopes equipped with detectors sensitive to linear polarization set to 120°. This marks the first instance of a three-telescope SMEX mission. Upon reaching orbit, an extending boom was deployed, extending the optics and detector to a focal length of 4 m. IXPE targets each celestial source through dithering observations. This method is essential for supporting on-ground calibrations by averaging the detector’s response across a section of its sensitive plane. The spacecraft supplies power, enables attitude determination for subsequent on-ground attitude reconstruction, and issues control commands. After two years of observation, IXPE has detected significant linear polarization from nearly all classes of celestial sources emitting X-rays. This paper outlines the IXPE mission’s achievements after two years of operation in orbit. In addition, we report developments for future high-throughput X-ray optics that will have much smaller dead-times by using a new generation of Applied Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC), and may provide 3D reconstruction of photo-electron tracks.","PeriodicalId":507788,"journal":{"name":"Instruments","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-03-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140384995","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-02-29DOI: 10.3390/instruments8010017
B. Bergmann, S. Gohl, D. Garvey, Jindřich Jelínek, P. Smolyanskiy
In space application, hybrid pixel detectors of the Timepix family have been considered mainly for the measurement of radiation levels and dosimetry in low earth orbits. Using the example of the Space Application of Timepix Radiation Monitor (SATRAM), we demonstrate the unique capabilities of Timepix-based miniaturized radiation detectors for particle separation. We present the incident proton energy spectrum in the geographic location of SAA obtained by using Bayesian unfolding of the stopping power spectrum measured with a single-layer Timepix. We assess the measurement stability and the resiliency of the detector to the space environment, thereby demonstrating that even though degradation is observed, data quality has not been affected significantly over more than 10 years. Based on the SATRAM heritage and the capabilities of the latest-generation Timepix series chips, we discuss their applicability for use in a compact magnetic spectrometer for a deep space mission or in the Jupiter radiation belts, as well as their capability for use as single-layer X- and γ-ray polarimeters. The latter was supported by the measurement of the polarization of scattered radiation in a laboratory experiment, where a modulation of 80% was found.
在空间应用中，Timepix 系列混合像素探测器主要用于测量低地球轨道的辐射水平和剂量。我们以 Timepix 辐射监测器的空间应用（SATRAM）为例，展示了基于 Timepix 的微型辐射探测器在粒子分离方面的独特能力。我们介绍了利用单层 Timepix 测得的停止功率谱的贝叶斯展开法获得的 SAA 地理位置的入射质子能谱。我们评估了探测器的测量稳定性和对空间环境的适应能力，从而证明，尽管观测到了衰减，但十多年来数据质量并未受到重大影响。基于 SATRAM 的传统和最新一代 Timepix 系列芯片的能力，我们讨论了它们在深空任务或木星辐射带中用于紧凑型磁谱仪的适用性，以及用作单层 X 射线和 γ 射线偏振计的能力。在实验室实验中对散射辐射的极化进行了测量，发现调制率为 80%，这为后者提供了支持。
{"title":"Results and Perspectives of Timepix Detectors in Space—From Radiation Monitoring in Low Earth Orbit to Astroparticle Physics","authors":"B. Bergmann, S. Gohl, D. Garvey, Jindřich Jelínek, P. Smolyanskiy","doi":"10.3390/instruments8010017","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments8010017","url":null,"abstract":"In space application, hybrid pixel detectors of the Timepix family have been considered mainly for the measurement of radiation levels and dosimetry in low earth orbits. Using the example of the Space Application of Timepix Radiation Monitor (SATRAM), we demonstrate the unique capabilities of Timepix-based miniaturized radiation detectors for particle separation. We present the incident proton energy spectrum in the geographic location of SAA obtained by using Bayesian unfolding of the stopping power spectrum measured with a single-layer Timepix. We assess the measurement stability and the resiliency of the detector to the space environment, thereby demonstrating that even though degradation is observed, data quality has not been affected significantly over more than 10 years. Based on the SATRAM heritage and the capabilities of the latest-generation Timepix series chips, we discuss their applicability for use in a compact magnetic spectrometer for a deep space mission or in the Jupiter radiation belts, as well as their capability for use as single-layer X- and γ-ray polarimeters. The latter was supported by the measurement of the polarization of scattered radiation in a laboratory experiment, where a modulation of 80% was found.","PeriodicalId":507788,"journal":{"name":"Instruments","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-02-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140415290","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
In the realm of space exploration, solid rocket motors (SRMs) play a pivotal role due to their reliability and high thrust-to-weight ratio. Serving as boosters in space launch vehicles and employed in military systems, and other critical & emerging applications, SRMs’ structural integrity monitoring, is of paramount importance. Traditional maintenance approaches often prove inefficient, leading to either unnecessary interventions or unexpected failures. Condition-based maintenance (CBM) emerges as a transformative strategy, incorporating advanced sensing technologies and predictive analytics. By continuously monitoring crucial parameters such as temperature, pressure, and strain, CBM enables real-time analysis, ensuring timely intervention upon detecting anomalies, thereby optimizing SRM lifecycle management. This paper critically evaluates conventional SRM health diagnosis methods and explores emerging sensing technologies. Photonic sensors and fiber-optic sensors, in particular, demonstrate exceptional promise. Their enhanced sensitivity and broad measurement range allow precise monitoring of temperature, strain, pressure, and vibration, capturing subtle changes indicative of degradation or potential failures. These sensors enable comprehensive, non-intrusive monitoring of multiple SRM locations simultaneously. Integrated with data analytics, these sensors empower predictive analysis, facilitating SRM behavior prediction and optimal maintenance planning. Ultimately, CBM, bolstered by advanced photonic sensors, promises enhanced operational availability, reduced costs, improved safety, and efficient resource allocation in SRM applications.
{"title":"Structural Health Monitoring of Solid Rocket Motors: From Destructive Testing to Perspectives of Photonic-Based Sensing","authors":"Georgia Korompili, Günter Mussbach, Christos Riziotis","doi":"10.3390/instruments8010016","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments8010016","url":null,"abstract":"In the realm of space exploration, solid rocket motors (SRMs) play a pivotal role due to their reliability and high thrust-to-weight ratio. Serving as boosters in space launch vehicles and employed in military systems, and other critical & emerging applications, SRMs’ structural integrity monitoring, is of paramount importance. Traditional maintenance approaches often prove inefficient, leading to either unnecessary interventions or unexpected failures. Condition-based maintenance (CBM) emerges as a transformative strategy, incorporating advanced sensing technologies and predictive analytics. By continuously monitoring crucial parameters such as temperature, pressure, and strain, CBM enables real-time analysis, ensuring timely intervention upon detecting anomalies, thereby optimizing SRM lifecycle management. This paper critically evaluates conventional SRM health diagnosis methods and explores emerging sensing technologies. Photonic sensors and fiber-optic sensors, in particular, demonstrate exceptional promise. Their enhanced sensitivity and broad measurement range allow precise monitoring of temperature, strain, pressure, and vibration, capturing subtle changes indicative of degradation or potential failures. These sensors enable comprehensive, non-intrusive monitoring of multiple SRM locations simultaneously. Integrated with data analytics, these sensors empower predictive analysis, facilitating SRM behavior prediction and optimal maintenance planning. Ultimately, CBM, bolstered by advanced photonic sensors, promises enhanced operational availability, reduced costs, improved safety, and efficient resource allocation in SRM applications.","PeriodicalId":507788,"journal":{"name":"Instruments","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-02-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140421109","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-02-24DOI: 10.3390/instruments8010014
G. Lawler, Fabio Bosco, Martina Carillo, Atsushi Fukasawa, Zenghai Li, N. Majernik, Yusuke Sakai, Sami Tantawi, Oliver Williams, M. Yadav, James Rosenzweig
Future electron accelerator applications such as X-ray free electron lasers and colliders are dependent on significantly increasing beam brightness. With the observation that linac beam manipulation’s best preservation of max brightness is at the cathode, we are incentivized to create an environment where we can study how to achieve the highest possible photogun brightness. In order to do so, we intend to extract beams from high-brightness photocathodes with the highest achievable accelerating gradients we can manage in a klystron-powered radiofrequency (RF) photogun. We utilize here cryogenic normal conducting cavities to achieve ultra-high gradients via limitation of breakdown rates (BDR). The low temperatures should also reduce cathode emittance by reducing the mean transverse energy (MTE) of electrons near the photoemission threshold. To this end, we have designed and produced a new CrYogenic Brightness-Optimized Radiofrequency Gun (CYBORG) for use in a new beamline at UCLA. We will introduce the enabling RF and photoemission physics as a primer for the new regime of high field low temperature cathodes we intend to enter. We further report the current status of the beamline commissioning, including the cooling of the photogun to 100 K, and producing 0.5 MW of RF feed power, which corresponds to cathode accelerating fields in the range of 80–90 MV/m. We further plan iterative improvements to both to 77 K and 1 MW corresponding to our ultimate goal >120 MV/m. Our discussion will include future beamline tests and the consideration of the initial realization of an ultra-high-gradient photoinjector concept.
未来的电子加速器应用（如 X 射线自由电子激光器和对撞机）依赖于大幅提高光束亮度。据观察，直列加速器光束操作的最佳最大亮度保持在阴极，因此我们有动力创造一种环境，研究如何实现尽可能高的光枪亮度。为此，我们打算从高亮度光电阴极中提取光束，并利用我们能够管理的最高加速梯度，在一个以速调管为动力的射频（RF）光枪中实现。在这里，我们利用低温正常导电腔，通过限制击穿率（BDR）来实现超高梯度。低温还能降低光发射阈值附近电子的平均横向能量（MTE），从而减少阴极发射率。为此，我们设计并生产了一种新型的原生亮度优化射频枪（CYBORG），用于加州大学洛杉矶分校的一条新光束线。我们将介绍射频和光发射物理学，作为我们打算进入的高场低温阴极新领域的入门知识。我们将进一步报告光束线的调试现状，包括将光枪冷却到 100 K，并产生 0.5 MW 的射频馈电功率，这相当于 80-90 MV/m 范围内的阴极加速场。我们计划进一步迭代改进，使其达到 77 K 和 1 MW，从而实现 >120 MV/m 的最终目标。我们的讨论将包括未来的光束线测试和超高梯度光注入器概念的初步实现。
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Pub Date : 2024-02-20DOI: 10.3390/instruments8010013
L. Burmistrov
NUSES is a pathfinder satellite project hosting two detectors: Ziré and Terzina. Ziré focuses on the study of protons and electrons below 250 MeV and MeV gamma rays. Terzina is dedicated to the detection of Cherenkov light produced by ultra-high-energy cosmic rays above 100 PeV and ultra-high-energy Earth-skimming neutrinos in the atmosphere, ensuring a large exposure. This work mainly concerns the description of the Cherenkov camera, composed of SiPMs, for the Terzina telescope. To increase the data-taking period, the NUSES orbit will be Sun-synchronous (with a height of about 550 km), thus allowing Terzina to always point toward the dark side of the Earth’s limb. The Sun-synchronous orbit requires small distances to the poles, and as a consequence, we expect an elevated dose to be received by the SiPMs. Background rates due to the dose accumulated by the SiPM would become a dominant contribution during the last two years of the NUSES mission. In this paper, we illustrate the measured effect of irradiance on SiPM photosensors with a variable-intensity beam of 50 MeV protons up to a 30 Gy total integrated dose. We also show the results of an initial study conducted without considering the contribution of solar wind protons and with an initial geometry with Geant4. The considered geometry included an entrance lens as one of the options in the initial design of the telescope. We characterize the SiPM output signal shape with different μ-cell sizes. We describe the developed parametric SiPM simulation, which is a part of the full Terzina simulation chain.
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Pub Date : 2024-02-20DOI: 10.3390/instruments8010012
Fabio Bosco, G. Andonian, O. Camacho, Martina Carillo, E. Chiadroni, A. Giribono, G. Lawler, N. Majernik, P. Manwani, M. Migliorati, A. Mostacci, L. Palumbo, G. J. Silvi, B. Spataro, C. Vaccarezza, M. Yadav, James Rosenzweig
Particle-driven plasma wakefield acceleration (PWFA) exploits the intense wakefields excited in a plasma by a high-brightness driver beam in order to accelerate a trailing, properly delayed witness electron beam. Such a configuration offers notable advantages in achieving very large accelerating gradients that are suitable for applications in particle colliders and photon production. Moreover, the amplitude of the accelerating fields can be enhanced by resonantly exciting the plasma using a multi-pulse driver beam with a proper time structure. Before the injection into the plasma stage, the pulsed electron beam, conventionally termed the comb beam, is usually produced and pre-accelerated in a radio-frequency (RF) linear accelerator (linac). In this pape, we discuss challenging aspects of the dynamics that comb beams encounter in the RF injector stage preceding the plasma. In particular, the examples we analyze focus on the use of velocity bunching to manipulate the time structure of the beam and the impact of dipole short-range wakefields on the transverse emittances. Indeed, both processes crucially affect the phase space distribution and its quality, which are determinant features for an efficient acceleration in the plasma. In addition, the analyses we present are performed with the custom tracking code MILES, which utilizes semi-analytical models for a simplified evaluation of wakefield effects in the presence of space charge forces.
粒子驱动等离子体唤醒场加速（PWFA）利用高亮度驱动光束在等离子体中激发的强烈唤醒场来加速尾随的、适当延迟的见证电子束。这种配置在实现非常大的加速梯度方面具有显著优势，适合应用于粒子对撞机和光子生产。此外，通过使用具有适当时间结构的多脉冲驱动光束对等离子体进行共振激励，还可以增强加速场的振幅。在注入等离子体阶段之前，脉冲电子束（通常称为梳状束）通常在射频直线加速器（linac）中产生并预加速。在本论文中，我们将讨论梳状电子束在等离子体之前的射频注入阶段所遇到的动力学挑战。特别是，我们分析的例子侧重于利用速度束化来操纵光束的时间结构，以及偶极子短程唤醒场对横向发射的影响。事实上，这两个过程都会对相空间分布及其质量产生至关重要的影响，而相空间分布及其质量是等离子体中有效加速的决定性特征。此外，我们介绍的分析是通过定制跟踪代码 MILES 进行的，该代码利用半分析模型简化了空间电荷作用下的唤醒场效应评估。
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