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Background: Research on the acute effects of β-alanine supplementation has primarily focused on performance outcomes, with limited attention to the underlying physiological mechanisms. This study aimed to investigate the acute effects of two β-alanine doses on performance, mechanical output, and acid-base balance during a 10 min cycling time trial (10'-TT), and to explore the relationship between buffering-related variables and performance.

Methods: Eighty-five recreational cyclists performed a 10'-TT under indoor conditions before (control) and following the acute ingestion of β-alanine (moderate-dose β-alanine 10 g-BAM; high-dose β-alanine 20 g-BAH) or placebo (PLA), with each condition tested on separate days. Data were analyzed using two-way repeated-measures ANOVA and correlation analyses.

Results: No significant differences were observed in performance variables (distance, speed, cadence, or heart rate; p ≥ 0.751). However, total external mechanical work (kJ) was significantly reduced following acute supplementation (p = 0.028). Notably, the BAM condition reduced the mechanical cost of exercise without impairing performance, and this effect was moderately associated with changes in bicarbonate levels.

Conclusions: Acute β-alanine supplementation did not improve performance outcomes but may alter buffering-related physiological responses associated with reduced mechanical work during high-intensity cycling exercise. These findings highlight the relevance of buffering-related mechanisms, particularly bicarbonate dynamics, in modulating the mechanical cost (work performed relative to performance achieved) of high-intensity exercise.

The present integrative umbrella review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the evidence and practices related to mental health and career transitions in elite sport toward the implementation of service provision through digital interventions. Following PRIO guidelines, an extensive search across five databases (2015-2025) identified 52 eligible manuscripts (e.g., conceptual, review, and position studies). Data extraction focused on mental health, dual-career pathways, career transition challenges and needs, and identity-related issues among high-performance athletes. The findings revealed a strong consensus that athlete well-being is shaped by the dynamic interaction of mental health symptoms, sport-specific stressors, identity processes, and structural conditions across the athletic lifespan. Mental health vulnerabilities (e.g., anxiety, depression, disordered eating, and distress) were consistently reported, particularly during injury, deselection, and retirement. Dual-career engagement, diversified identities, and proactive career planning emerged as key protective factors, while stigma, limited literacy, and uneven access to psychological services remained persistent barriers. Five main thematic areas (Matrix 1) operationalized in ten higher-order intervention domains (e.g., Matrix 2, screening, monitoring, literacy, and others) and 14 potential online implementation strategies (Matrix 3) were identified. However, the evidence highlights fragmented implementation and a lack of scalable, cross-national tools to support athletes during and beyond their competitive careers. Therefore, a harmonized, evidence-based, multidimensional framework for the development and implementation of digital support resources has been proposed. This integrative review underscores the need for integrated, culturally sensitive, and digitally enabled support systems to promote sustainable transitions and long-term athlete well-being.

Background: Warm-up strategy is a key determinant of sprint performance, yet how different protocols influence performance across repeated sprint trials remains unclear, particularly regarding sex-specific responses. This study compared the acute effects of three warm-up protocols on repeated sprint performance in male and female athletes.

Methods: Thirty-four male and 23 female athletes completed three warm-up protocols on separate occasions: a general long warm-up (GLW; 20 min), a long specific warm-up (LSW; 20 min), and a short specific warm-up (SSW; 10 min). After each protocol, participants performed three maximal 60 m sprints (T1, T2, T3), with split times recorded at 10 and 40 m. Sprint times were analysed using a three-way mixed-design ANOVA, with protocol and trial as within-subject factors and sex as the between-subject factor.

Results: A significant protocol × sex interaction was observed at 40 m (F = 4.32, p = 0.016, ηp² = 0.07) and 60 m (F = 4.08, p = 0.020, ηp² = 0.07), but not at 10 m. Follow-up analyses showed no significant protocol differences in males. In females, LSW and SSW allowed faster sprint times than GLW at both 40 m and 60 m, while LSW and SSW did not differ from each other. The protocol × trial and protocol × trial × sex interactions were not significant.

Conclusions: In this sample of student athletes, sprint-specific warm-ups allowed faster sprint performance than the general warm-up in females over 40 and 60 m, whereas no protocol differences were observed in males. These findings suggest that sex-specific responses to warm-up may be distance-dependent and should be interpreted in light of the heterogeneous sample and lack of menstrual-cycle control.

Prolonged endurance exercise performed in hot ambient conditions is associated with an increased prevalence of performance-limiting gastrointestinal perturbations. This study aimed to examine the associations between biomarkers of exercise-induced gastrointestinal syndrome (EIGS) and exercise-associated gastrointestinal symptoms (Ex-GIS) under exertional heat stress (EHS). Fifty-six non-heat acclimated endurance-trained individuals completed 2 h of steady state running at 60% maximal oxygen uptake (V.O2max) with an ambient temperature of 35.1 °C and relative humidity 29.4%. Venous blood samples were collected immediately pre- and post-exercise to quantify plasma concentrations of gastrointestinal epithelial injury and systemic inflammatory biomarkers, whilst gastrointestinal symptoms were recorded at regular intervals throughout the exercise protocol. Spearman's rank correlation identified moderately significant relationships between interleukin-6 (IL-6) with defecation-bloody stools; interleukin-10 (IL-10) with upper abdominal pain; and IL-10, IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra), and systemic inflammatory response (SIR) profile with flatulence. Simple linear regression demonstrated that IL-6 explained a small but significant proportion of the variance defecation-bloody stool (adjusted R² = 0.094, p = 0.024); whilst variance in flatulence was independently explained by IL-10 (adjusted R² = 0.138, p = 0.025), IL-1ra (adjusted R² = 0.122, p = 0.033), and SIR-Profile (adjusted R² = 0.112, p = 0.040). These findings suggest that Ex-GIS development is multifactorial in aetiology and pathophysiology, and that symptom reporting alone likely underestimates perturbations to the gastrointestinal tract during EHS.

The aim of this study was to analyze the effects of different small-sided game (SSG) formats on internal load, perceived enjoyment, and technical-tactical performance in elite youth water polo players. Twenty male athletes (U16, n = 10; U18, n = 10) performed in three 4 vs. 4 SSG formats with different time of ball possessions and size of field areas. Technical-tactical variables were assessed using the Team Sport Assessment Procedure (TSAP), while internal load and enjoyment were measured through session-RPE (s-RPE) and a 7-point enjoyment Likert scale (ENJ). Data were analyzed using linear mixed-effects models and Spearman correlations. SSG format significantly influenced internal load, with higher RPE values (F = 6.878; p = 0.004) and s-RPE (F = 6.27; p = 0.006) observed in larger formats of the SSG. Technical-tactical indices were also affected, with significant differences found for volume of play (VP) (F = 17.041; p < 0.001) and performance score (PS) (F = 18.574; p < 0.001), showing higher values in the smallest format (SSG1). Enjoyment differed between categories (F = 13.136; p = 0.003), with higher scores in U16 players. No significant correlations were found between final RPE and TSAP indices (p > 0.05). These findings suggest that SSGs are effective tools for simultaneously developing physical and technical-tactical skills. Coaches should manipulate task constraints to balance training intensity and skill development, while also enhancing player motivation and engagement.

Resistance training (RT) is commonly used to enhance neuromuscular performance and sprint swimming outcomes. However, the optimal relative load for elite junior swimmers remains unclear. In particular, little is known about whether very low relative loads can elicit meaningful adaptations while minimizing neuromuscular fatigue in athletes exposed to high concurrent training demands. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare the effects of two land-based RT programs differing only in relative load intensity (40-50% vs. 55-65% 1RM), performed with maximal intended concentric velocity, on strength, jumping ability, and 50 m freestyle swimming performance in elite junior swimmers. Eighteen elite junior swimmers (15.6 ± 0.9 years) from a national high-performance program were randomly assigned to a low-load (40-50% 1RM; n = 9) or moderate-load (55-65% 1RM; n = 9) group. Both groups completed an 8-week RT program (2 sessions·week^-1) with identical exercise selection, volume, execution velocity, and in-water training load. Neuromuscular performance (countermovement jump, squat, bench press, and pull-up strength) and swimming performance (50 m freestyle from the starting block and in-water start) were assessed pre- and post-intervention. Both RT protocols improved squat and bench press strength and 50 m freestyle performance, whereas significant improvements in countermovement jump, pull-up strength, and maximal pull-up repetitions were observed only in the low-load group. Significant group × time interactions were found for countermovement jump, maximal number of pull-up repetitions, and 50 m freestyle performance from the starting block, indicating more favorable changes over time in the low-load group. In conclusion, both low- and moderate-load high-velocity RT improved neuromuscular and 50 m freestyle performance outcomes in elite junior swimmers. However, the low-load RT (40-50% 1RM) appeared to provide additional benefits in specific outcomes (i.e., jumping, pull-ups, and 50 m performance from the starting block). These findings suggest that relatively low loads may be a practical alternative to moderate-load RT in high-volume swimming training environments.

Most detraining research in swimming has focused on competitive athletes, whereas less is known about recreational university swimmers, a population commonly exposed to temporary interruptions in structured training. This study examined the effects of 4 weeks of naturally occurring detraining on anthropometric, body composition, biochemical, kinematic, and performance variables in recreational university swimmers. Sixteen young swimmers were assessed before and after detraining, following at least one year of participation in a structured university swimming training program. Anthropometric, body composition, biochemical, kinematic, and performance variables were assessed before and after the detraining period. After detraining, waist and hip circumferences, fat mass, and total cholesterol increased. In contrast, fasting glucose, triglycerides, post-exercise lactate, 50 m performance, and kinematic variables showed no statistically significant changes. These findings suggest that, in recreational university swimmers, anthropometric, body composition, and metabolic variables may be more sensitive to short-term detraining than sprint performance-related outcomes. However, the absence of statistically significant performance changes should be interpreted with caution.

Population aging increases the need to preserve functional independence in older adults. This cross-sectional study examined the associations between physical activity (PA), percentage muscle mass (%Muscle), and functional outcomes in 129 community-dwelling older adults (mean age 72.05 ± 8.46 years). PA was assessed with the IPAQ (MET-min/week), body composition via bioelectrical impedance, and outcomes included the Timed Up and Go test (TUG), handgrip strength, calcaneal bone status (QUS-derived T-score), and SF-36 Physical Component Summary (PCS). Total PA showed a small positive association with handgrip strength (r = 0.19, p = 0.031). Bootstrapped mediation analyses (5000 resamples), adjusted for age and BMI, revealed no statistically significant indirect effects through %Muscle (all 95% CIs included zero). Exploratory simulations based on observed associations suggested modest changes in handgrip strength with hypothetical increases in PA (+0.25 kg at +20% METs; +0.62 kg at +50% METs), while changes in other outcomes were minimal. These findings indicate that, in this relatively well-functioning sample, total PA volume has limited explanatory value for variability in functional and musculoskeletal outcomes. Muscle mass did not statistically account for the PA-function relationship. Given the cross-sectional design, causal inferences cannot be drawn. These findings suggest that targeted exercise programs emphasizing muscle strength and neuromuscular function may be more effective than increases in overall physical activity volume for preserving functional capacity in older adults.

Background: Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury is one of the most common injuries among athletes and demonstrates significant sex-based differences in incidence, with a higher documented risk in females. Various anatomical, biomechanical, neuromuscular, and hormonal factors have been proposed to explain this disparity; however, the available evidence remains inconclusive due to methodological heterogeneity across studies, variability in outcome measures, and inconsistencies in the assessment of hormonal and biomechanical variables. Objective: To map and synthesize the scientific evidence regarding risk factors associated with ACL injury during sports activity, incorporating a sex-specific analytical perspective. Methods: A scoping review was conducted following the methodological framework proposed by Arksey and O'Malley, the Joanna Briggs Institute guidelines, and the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR). A systematic search was performed in PubMed and Scopus through September 2025. Observational and experimental studies assessing ACL injury risk factors and analyzing sex-based differences were included. Findings were synthesized using a descriptive and narrative approach. Results: Nineteen studies were included. Biomechanical and neuromuscular factors were the most frequently investigated domains among the included studies (68.4%), followed by hormonal (42%) and anatomical factors (36.8%). These percentages reflect the distribution of research focus across the literature rather than the relative strength or importance of each risk factor. In females, injury risk was primarily associated with high-risk biomechanical patterns, cyclical hormonal variations, and specific anatomical characteristics. In males, risk factors were mainly related to muscular weakness, joint laxity, and structural ligament characteristics. Conclusions: ACL injury risk in athletes appears to be influenced by multiple interacting intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The available evidence suggests that sex-related differences may exist in the contribution of biomechanical, anatomical, hormonal, and neuromuscular factors; however, these relationships are multifactorial and should be interpreted cautiously given the heterogeneity of the included studies.

Background: Mixed martial arts (MMA) involve repeated high-intensity, explosive actions that cause substantial fatigue, underscoring the importance of effective recovery strategies.

Purpose: This pilot study investigated short-term performance responses to different post-exercise recovery interventions in Polish MMA athletes.

Methods: Sixteen athletes (14 males and 2 females) were randomly assigned to cryosauna (CRYO), cold-water immersion (CWI), foam rolling (FR), or passive recovery (CON), with 4 participants per group. The intervention lasted two weeks, with the assigned recovery intervention applied after each training session. Performance was evaluated before and after the intervention using the countermovement jump (CMJ), isokinetic knee peak torque (flexion and extension), and reactive stress tolerance of the determination test (DT). Data were analyzed using mixed-design ANOVA.

Results: CMJ performance improved over time across groups. FR significantly increased knee extension (from 228.67 ± 26.49 N.m to 250.50 ± 22.41 N.m), whereas DT scores significantly increased in the CRYO group (from 247.50 ± 12.50 AU to 291.50 ± 15.61 AU) and significantly decreased in the CON group (from 290.25 ± 24.45 AU to 255.50 ± 24.18 AU). Significant Time × Group interactions were observed for DT (p < 0.001) and knee extension torque (p = 0.008).

Conclusions: FR appeared beneficial for knee extension performance, whereas CRYO was associated with improved DT performance. Findings are exploratory and need confirmation in larger, controlled studies.