Pub Date : 2024-12-01DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101023
Paula Maria Rosa , Murilo de Souza Queiroz , Rodolfo Mei Pelinson , Luciano A. Anjos , Denise de Cerqueira Rossa-Feres
Parasites can impact tadpole survival in both lethal and sublethal ways. Sublethal effects include alterations in morphology and behavior, reduced competitive ability, and increased vulnerability to predation, while lethal effects result in direct mortality. These impacts can have significant consequences at both individual and population levels, especially given that amphibians host various parasites and pathogens, which may contribute to population declines. This study investigated the influence of digenetic trematodes, specifically Lophosicyadiplostomum sp. and Echinostomatidae metacercariae – larval stages found in second intermediate hosts, on the development and behavior of Physalaemus cuvieri tadpoles. Behavioral experiments assessed tadpole activity (time and movement number), water column use, and food consumption rates using video recordings and image analysis. Swimming performance was evaluated through predation simulations, and tadpole morphology (i.e. body size and mass) was measured post-experimentally. Infections by these digenetic trematodes resulted in a notable reduction in tadpole activity. A negative correlation was observed between Lophosicyadiplostomum sp. parasite load and both tadpole activity duration and movement frequency, indicating a common response to trematode infection. This study underscores the need for further research on digenetic trematodes to determine whether these behavioral modifications represent host manipulation by the parasites, potentially optimizing their transmission to the final host.
{"title":"Parasite-Driven host manipulation: The case of trematodes in Neotropical tadpoles","authors":"Paula Maria Rosa , Murilo de Souza Queiroz , Rodolfo Mei Pelinson , Luciano A. Anjos , Denise de Cerqueira Rossa-Feres","doi":"10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101023","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101023","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Parasites can impact tadpole survival in both lethal and sublethal ways. Sublethal effects include alterations in morphology and behavior, reduced competitive ability, and increased vulnerability to predation, while lethal effects result in direct mortality. These impacts can have significant consequences at both individual and population levels, especially given that amphibians host various parasites and pathogens, which may contribute to population declines. This study investigated the influence of digenetic trematodes, specifically <em>Lophosicyadiplostomum</em> sp. and Echinostomatidae metacercariae – larval stages found in second intermediate hosts, on the development and behavior of <em>Physalaemus cuvieri</em> tadpoles. Behavioral experiments assessed tadpole activity (time and movement number), water column use, and food consumption rates using video recordings and image analysis. Swimming performance was evaluated through predation simulations, and tadpole morphology (i.e. body size and mass) was measured post-experimentally. Infections by these digenetic trematodes resulted in a notable reduction in tadpole activity. A negative correlation was observed between <em>Lophosicyadiplostomum</em> sp. parasite load and both tadpole activity duration and movement frequency, indicating a common response to trematode infection. This study underscores the need for further research on digenetic trematodes to determine whether these behavioral modifications represent host manipulation by the parasites, potentially optimizing their transmission to the final host.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54278,"journal":{"name":"International Journal for Parasitology-Parasites and Wildlife","volume":"25 ","pages":"Article 101023"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2024-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142745511","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-12-01DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101019
Leslie Stout , Guillemine Daffe , Aurélie Chambouvet , Simão Correia , Sarah Culloty , Rosa Freitas , David Iglesias , K. Thomas Jensen , Sandra Joaquim , Sharon Lynch , Luisa Magalhães , Kate Mahony , Shelagh K. Malham , Domitilia Matias , Mélanie Rocroy , David W. Thieltges , Xavier de Montaudouin
Identifying marine trematode parasites in host tissue can be complicated when there is limited morphological differentiation between species infecting the same host species. This poses a challenge for regular surveys of the parasite communities in species of socio-economic and ecological importance. Our study focused on identifying digenean trematode species infecting the marine bivalve Cerastoderma edule across Europe by comparing morphological and molecular species identification methods. Cockles were sampled from ten locations to observe the trematode parasites under a stereomicroscope (morphological identification) and to isolate individuals for phylogenetic analyses using two gene markers, the small sub-unit ribosomal (18S) RNA gene (SSU rDNA) and the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1). For the first time, we compared both morphological identification and phylogenetic analyses for each of the 13 originally identified species. First, we identified a group of five species for which morphological identification matched molecular results (Bucephalus minimus, Monorchis parvus, Renicola parvicaudatus, Psilostomum brevicolle, Himasthla interrupta). Second, we identified a group of six species for which molecular results revealed either misidentifications or cryptic diversity (Gymnophallus choledochus, Diphterostomum brusinae, Curtuteria arguinae, Himasthla quissetensis, H. elongata, H. continua). Third, our analyses showed that all sequences of two expected species, Gymnophallus minutus and G. fossarum, matched between the two, strongly suggesting that only G. minutus is present in the studied area. Our study clearly demonstrates that molecular tools are necessary to validate the trematode species composition. However, with 17 distinct genetic lineages detected, some of which are not fully identified, future studies are needed to clarify the identity and status (regular vs. accidental infection) of some of these cryptic trematode species.
{"title":"Morphological vs. molecular identification of trematode species infecting the edible cockle Cerastoderma edule across Europe","authors":"Leslie Stout , Guillemine Daffe , Aurélie Chambouvet , Simão Correia , Sarah Culloty , Rosa Freitas , David Iglesias , K. Thomas Jensen , Sandra Joaquim , Sharon Lynch , Luisa Magalhães , Kate Mahony , Shelagh K. Malham , Domitilia Matias , Mélanie Rocroy , David W. Thieltges , Xavier de Montaudouin","doi":"10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101019","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101019","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Identifying marine trematode parasites in host tissue can be complicated when there is limited morphological differentiation between species infecting the same host species. This poses a challenge for regular surveys of the parasite communities in species of socio-economic and ecological importance. Our study focused on identifying digenean trematode species infecting the marine bivalve <em>Cerastoderma edule</em> across Europe by comparing morphological and molecular species identification methods. Cockles were sampled from ten locations to observe the trematode parasites under a stereomicroscope (morphological identification) and to isolate individuals for phylogenetic analyses using two gene markers, the small sub-unit ribosomal (18S) RNA gene (SSU rDNA) and the mitochondrial cytochrome <em>c</em> oxidase subunit 1 (cox1). For the first time, we compared both morphological identification and phylogenetic analyses for each of the 13 originally identified species. First, we identified a group of five species for which morphological identification matched molecular results (<em>Bucephalus minimus</em>, <em>Monorchis parvus</em>, <em>Renicola parvicaudatus</em>, <em>Psilostomum brevicolle</em>, <em>Himasthla interrupta</em>). Second, we identified a group of six species for which molecular results revealed either misidentifications or cryptic diversity (<em>Gymnophallus choledochus</em>, <em>Diphterostomum brusinae</em>, <em>Curtuteria arguinae</em>, <em>Himasthla quissetensis</em>, <em>H. elongata</em>, <em>H</em>. <em>continua</em>). Third, our analyses showed that all sequences of two expected species, <em>Gymnophallus minutus</em> and <em>G. fossarum</em>, matched between the two, strongly suggesting that only <em>G. minutus</em> is present in the studied area. Our study clearly demonstrates that molecular tools are necessary to validate the trematode species composition. However, with 17 distinct genetic lineages detected, some of which are not fully identified, future studies are needed to clarify the identity and status (regular <em>vs.</em> accidental infection) of some of these cryptic trematode species.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54278,"journal":{"name":"International Journal for Parasitology-Parasites and Wildlife","volume":"25 ","pages":"Article 101019"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2024-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142745513","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Trematodiases strongly reduce the welfare of humans and animals causing a great decline in health and productivity. Insufficient data on the extent of trematode infection in definitive hosts and associated risk factors remain a great threat to its control. A cross-sectional study was conducted to establish the; prevalence of liver flukes and schistosomes in livestock and wild mammals and the socio-ecological risk factors associated with their spread. Fresh dung samples were collected opportunistically (n = 865) and examined using formal ether sedimentation and microscopy for parasite eggs. Twelve abattoir visits were conducted to examine the livers of animals killed for mature flukes. Key informants (n = 110) including farmers, butchers, game rangers, and herders were interviewed to document the socio-ecological risk factors. In the abattoirs, 57.1%(CI 0.422–0.712) of cattle were infected with Fasciola flukes and not sheep and goats. Cattle dung had the highest prevalence (56% CI 0.518–0.604) of Fasciola eggs, followed by sheep (50%, CI 0.319–0.681) and goats (28.2%, CI 0.218–0.353). Among wild mammals, hippos' dung (66%; 95% CI 0.53–0.777) had the highest prevalence of Fasciola followed by warthogs (8%; 95% CI 0.002–0.385) and baboons (6.7%; CI 0.002–0.319). No Fasciola eggs were observed in elephant dung (n = 21) and monkeys (n = 2). Schistosoma bovis was found in cattle dung from Mpeefu (2.6%; 95% CI 0.007–0.066) and Ndaiga (4.3%; 95% CI 0.022–0.075) while S. mattheei in goats’ (1.4%; 95% CI 0.00–0.075) and cattle (0.39%; 95% CI 0.00–0.021) dung samples from Ndaiga. Key informants had moderate knowledge of fasciolosis (62.7%), highest among butchers (89.7%), and lowest among herders (31.8%). Only veterinary officers knew about schistosomiasis in animals. Free-range grazing and unsafe water sources for livestock, shared with wild animals, were the risky practices by most farmers (66–100%). Fasciola was prevalent in livestock and wild mammals, while Schistosoma in cattle and goats.
寄生虫病极大地降低了人类和动物的福利，导致健康和生产力的大幅下降。关于最终宿主中吸虫感染程度和相关风险因素的数据不足，仍然是控制吸虫感染的一大威胁。进行了横断面研究，以建立；牲畜和野生哺乳动物中肝吸虫和血吸虫的流行及其传播相关的社会生态风险因素。机会性地收集了新鲜粪便样本（n = 865），并使用正式的醚沉淀和显微镜检查寄生虫卵。对12个屠宰场进行了访问，以检查因成年吸虫而死亡的动物的肝脏。访谈了包括农民、屠夫、狩猎护林员和牧民在内的110名关键信息提供者，以记录社会生态风险因素。在屠宰场中，57.1%（CI 0.422 ~ 0.712）的牛感染了吸片虫，绵羊和山羊未感染。牛粪中片形吸虫卵感染率最高（56% CI 0.518 ~ 0.604），其次是绵羊（50%,CI 0.319 ~ 0.681）和山羊（28.2%,CI 0.218 ~ 0.353）。在野生哺乳动物中，河马的粪便占66%；95% CI 0.53-0.777)片形虫患病率最高，其次是疣猪(8%；95% CI 0.002-0.385)和狒狒(6.7%；可信区间0.002 - -0.319)。在象粪（n = 21）和猴粪（n = 2）中未检出片形吸虫卵。在Mpeefu牛粪中检出牛血吸虫(2.6%；95% CI 0.007-0.066)和Ndaiga (4.3%；95% CI 0.022-0.075)，而山羊的马修沙门氏菌(1.4%；95% CI 0.00-0.075)和牛(0.39%；95%可信区间为0.00-0.021)Ndaiga的粪便样本。关键信息提供者对片形虫病的认知程度一般（62.7%），其中屠宰者最高（89.7%），牧民最低（31.8%）。只有兽医官员知道动物的血吸虫病。大多数农民（66% - 100%）的风险做法是自由放养和与野生动物共用不安全的牲畜水源。片形虫流行于家畜和野生哺乳动物，血吸虫流行于牛和山羊。
{"title":"Liver fluke and schistosome cross-infection risk between livestock and wild mammals in Western Uganda, a One Health approach","authors":"Daisy Namirembe , Tine Huyse , Rapheal Wangalwa , Julius Tumusiime , Casim Umba Tolo","doi":"10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101022","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101022","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Trematodiases strongly reduce the welfare of humans and animals causing a great decline in health and productivity. Insufficient data on the extent of trematode infection in definitive hosts and associated risk factors remain a great threat to its control. A cross-sectional study was conducted to establish the; prevalence of liver flukes and schistosomes in livestock and wild mammals and the socio-ecological risk factors associated with their spread. Fresh dung samples were collected opportunistically (n = 865) and examined using formal ether sedimentation and microscopy for parasite eggs. Twelve abattoir visits were conducted to examine the livers of animals killed for mature flukes. Key informants (n = 110) including farmers, butchers, game rangers, and herders were interviewed to document the socio-ecological risk factors. In the abattoirs, 57.1%(CI 0.422–0.712) of cattle were infected with <em>Fasciola</em> flukes and not sheep and goats. Cattle dung had the highest prevalence (56% CI 0.518–0.604) of <em>Fasciola</em> eggs, followed by sheep (50%, CI 0.319–0.681) and goats (28.2%, CI 0.218–0.353). Among wild mammals, hippos' dung (66%; 95% CI 0.53–0.777) had the highest prevalence of <em>Fasciola</em> followed by warthogs (8%; 95% CI 0.002–0.385) and baboons (6.7%; CI 0.002–0.319). No <em>Fasciola</em> eggs were observed in elephant dung (n = 21) and monkeys (n = 2). <em>Schistosoma bovis</em> was found in cattle dung from Mpeefu (2.6%; 95% CI 0.007–0.066) and Ndaiga (4.3%; 95% CI 0.022–0.075) while <em>S. mattheei</em> in goats’ (1.4%; 95% CI 0.00–0.075) and cattle (0.39%; 95% CI 0.00–0.021) dung samples from Ndaiga. Key informants had moderate knowledge of fasciolosis (62.7%), highest among butchers (89.7%), and lowest among herders (31.8%). Only veterinary officers knew about schistosomiasis in animals. Free-range grazing and unsafe water sources for livestock, shared with wild animals, were the risky practices by most farmers (66–100%). <em>Fasciola</em> was prevalent in livestock and wild mammals, while <em>Schistosoma</em> in cattle and goats.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54278,"journal":{"name":"International Journal for Parasitology-Parasites and Wildlife","volume":"25 ","pages":"Article 101022"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2024-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142745512","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-12-01DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101024
Ramona Fleischer , Marc Velling , Wibke Peters , Tomáš Peterka , Frederik Franke , Pavla Jůnková Vymyslická , Steffen Rehbein , Marco Heurich , Simone Sommer
Invasive parasites that expand their natural range can be a threat to wildlife biodiversity and may pose a health risk to non-adapted, naive host species. The invasive giant liver fluke, Fascioloides magna, native to North America, has extended its range in Europe and uses mainly red deer (Cervus elaphus) as definitive hosts. The penetration of the intestinal barrier by the young flukes to reach the liver via the abdominal cavity as well as the release of fluke metabolism products and excreta with the bile and/or changes in the microbial community of the biliary system may enable the translocation of intestinal bacteria across the intestinal barrier and, in turn, could be associated with inflammation and changes in the intestinal bacterial community. The gut commensal community plays a key role in host nutrition and interacts with cells of the immune system to maintain host health. For this study, the gut bacterial community of red deer infected with F. magna and of non-infected red deer from one of the largest forest ecosystems in Central Europe, located on the border between the Czech Republic and Germany, was investigated. The individual fluke burden was associated with changes in the gut microbial composition of the gut of infected individuals, whereas the diversity and composition of the gut bacteria were only slightly different between fluke-infected and uninfected deer. Several bacterial taxa at the genus level were unique to individuals carrying either one or many liver flukes. Our results suggest that the microbiota of red deer is stable to perturbation by low numbers of F. magna. However, a larger parasite burden may cause changes in the gut microbial composition in definitive hosts implying that non-invasive fecal microbiome assessments could serve as indicator for wildlife health monitoring.
{"title":"Invasive Fascioloides magna infections impact gut microbiota in a definitive host in Europe","authors":"Ramona Fleischer , Marc Velling , Wibke Peters , Tomáš Peterka , Frederik Franke , Pavla Jůnková Vymyslická , Steffen Rehbein , Marco Heurich , Simone Sommer","doi":"10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101024","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101024","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Invasive parasites that expand their natural range can be a threat to wildlife biodiversity and may pose a health risk to non-adapted, naive host species. The invasive giant liver fluke, <em>Fascioloides magna</em>, native to North America, has extended its range in Europe and uses mainly red deer (<em>Cervus elaphus</em>) as definitive hosts. The penetration of the intestinal barrier by the young flukes to reach the liver via the abdominal cavity as well as the release of fluke metabolism products and excreta with the bile and/or changes in the microbial community of the biliary system may enable the translocation of intestinal bacteria across the intestinal barrier and, in turn, could be associated with inflammation and changes in the intestinal bacterial community. The gut commensal community plays a key role in host nutrition and interacts with cells of the immune system to maintain host health. For this study, the gut bacterial community of red deer infected with <em>F. magna</em> and of non-infected red deer from one of the largest forest ecosystems in Central Europe, located on the border between the Czech Republic and Germany, was investigated. The individual fluke burden was associated with changes in the gut microbial composition of the gut of infected individuals, whereas the diversity and composition of the gut bacteria were only slightly different between fluke-infected and uninfected deer. Several bacterial taxa at the genus level were unique to individuals carrying either one or many liver flukes. Our results suggest that the microbiota of red deer is stable to perturbation by low numbers of <em>F. magna</em>. However, a larger parasite burden may cause changes in the gut microbial composition in definitive hosts implying that non-invasive fecal microbiome assessments could serve as indicator for wildlife health monitoring.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54278,"journal":{"name":"International Journal for Parasitology-Parasites and Wildlife","volume":"25 ","pages":"Article 101024"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2024-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142757462","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-11-30eCollection Date: 2024-12-01DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101026
Aleksandra Yatsuk, Emilia Nartshuk, Andrey Bushuev, Anvar Kerimov, Nguyễn Văn Linh, Oleg Tolstenkov, Alexandr Matyukhin
The family Hippoboscidae, commonly known as "louse flies," comprises pupiparous Diptera that are ectoparasites of birds and mammals, with significant impacts on their hosts and epidemiological importance. The louse fly fauna of Vietnam is relatively understudied compared to other countries in the Southeast Asia region. In this study, we describe a new species of the genus Icosta Speiser, 1905 (Diptera: Hippoboscidae), Icosta korzunisp. n., collected from the lesser coucal Centropus bengalensis (Gmelin, JF, 1788) in Cat Tien National Park, Vietnam. This new species is distinguished from other Icosta species by the morphology of laterite 3, wing length, arrangement of wing microtrichia, body coloration, and its geographical distribution. Additionally, we provide an updated key to the subgenus Icosta Speiser, 1905.
通常被称为“虱蝇”的蝇科是由羽化双翅目昆虫组成的，它们是鸟类和哺乳动物的体外寄生虫，对它们的宿主和流行病学的重要性有重大影响。与东南亚地区其他国家相比，越南的虱蝇区系研究相对不足。本文报道了在越南猫田国家公园采集到的一新种Icosta Speiser属，1905（双翅目：海蝇科），Icosta korzuni sp. n. （Gmelin， JF, 1788）。该新种在红土3的形态、翅长、翅微毛的排列、体色和地理分布等方面与其他种有所区别。此外，我们还提供了Icosta Speiser亚属的更新密钥，1905。
{"title":"Description of a new species of <i>Icosta</i> Speiser , 1905 (Diptera: Hippoboscidae) from Southern Vietnam with the updated key to the subgenus <i>Icosta</i>.","authors":"Aleksandra Yatsuk, Emilia Nartshuk, Andrey Bushuev, Anvar Kerimov, Nguyễn Văn Linh, Oleg Tolstenkov, Alexandr Matyukhin","doi":"10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101026","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101026","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The family Hippoboscidae, commonly known as \"louse flies,\" comprises pupiparous Diptera that are ectoparasites of birds and mammals, with significant impacts on their hosts and epidemiological importance. The louse fly fauna of Vietnam is relatively understudied compared to other countries in the Southeast Asia region. In this study, we describe a new species of the genus <i>Icosta</i> Speiser, 1905 (Diptera: Hippoboscidae), <i>Icosta korzuni</i> <b>sp. n.</b>, collected from the lesser coucal <i>Centropus bengalensis</i> (Gmelin, JF, 1788) in Cat Tien National Park, Vietnam. This new species is distinguished from other <i>Icosta</i> species by the morphology of laterite 3, wing length, arrangement of wing microtrichia, body coloration, and its geographical distribution. Additionally, we provide an updated key to the subgenus <i>Icosta</i> Speiser, 1905.</p>","PeriodicalId":54278,"journal":{"name":"International Journal for Parasitology-Parasites and Wildlife","volume":"25 ","pages":"101026"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2024-11-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11652956/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142856398","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Trypanosomes are blood parasites capable of infecting nearly any vertebrate. Many Neotropical primates frequently host trypanosomes and are considered potential reservoirs for Trypanosoma cruzi and other human-pathogenic trypanosomatids. However, diagnostic methods originally developed for detecting these trypanosomatids in humans and domestic species must be validated to reliably diagnose infections in non-human primates. Without such validation, taxonomic biases and incorrect assignments of wildlife reservoirs can occur. The white-footed tamarin (Oedipomidas leucopus), a primate endemic to northwestern Colombia, is classified by the World Health Organization as a reservoir of T. cruzi. However, this classification is based on studies with small sample sizes, ambiguous diagnostic methods, and questionable geographic records. In this study, the 18S ribosomal RNA gene was amplified via PCR and sequenced to estimate trypanosome infection rates and identify species in natural populations of O. leucopus across a wide geographic range, as well as in (ex situ) specimens. This molecular approach was also compared with traditional microscopy diagnosis using blood smears. The molecular diagnosis revealed that over 60% of the tested specimens were infected, whereas traditional microscopy resulted in 58% false negatives compared to the molecular method. A Bayesian phylogeny of the 18S gene identified T. minasense as the sole trypanosomatid species present in O. leucopus, with no detections of T. cruzi or other trypanosomatids of concern to human or domestic animal health. This study highlights the risk of overestimating the presence of human-infecting trypanosomes, such as T. cruzi, in tamarins and other vertebrates, and underscores the importance of validating diagnostic methods to accurately assess the zoonotic potential of wild species. Accurate identification of wildlife reservoirs is essential for understanding parasite life cycles and implementing effective management and conservation strategies for primates and other potential reservoirs.
锥虫是一种血液寄生虫，几乎可以感染任何脊椎动物。许多新热带灵长类动物经常寄生锥虫，被认为是克鲁斯锥虫和其他人类致病锥虫的潜在贮藏地。然而，最初为检测人类和家养物种中的锥虫而开发的诊断方法必须经过验证，才能可靠地诊断非人灵长类动物的感染情况。如果没有这种验证，就会出现分类学上的偏差和对野生动物病原的错误判断。白脚狨（Oedipomidas leucopus）是哥伦比亚西北部特有的一种灵长类动物，世界卫生组织将其归类为T. cruzi病毒携带者。然而，这一分类是基于样本量小、诊断方法不明确、地理记录有问题的研究。在这项研究中，通过 PCR 扩增 18S 核糖体 RNA 基因并进行测序，以估计锥虫的感染率，并确定 O. leucopus 在广泛地理范围内的自然种群以及（异地）标本中的物种。这种分子方法还与使用血液涂片的传统显微镜诊断方法进行了比较。分子诊断结果显示，超过 60% 的受测标本受到感染，而与分子方法相比，传统显微镜诊断方法的假阴性率高达 58%。通过对 18S 基因进行贝叶斯系统进化，确定小锥虫是出现在 O. leucopus 身上的唯一锥虫物种，而没有检测到 T. cruzi 或其他与人类或家畜健康有关的锥虫。这项研究强调了高估犭胥和其他脊椎动物体内存在人类感染锥虫（如克鲁斯锥虫）的风险，并强调了验证诊断方法以准确评估野生物种人畜共患病可能性的重要性。要了解寄生虫的生命周期，并对灵长类动物和其他潜在的寄生虫库实施有效的管理和保护策略，就必须准确识别野生动物库。
{"title":"Redefining infections with trypanosomatids in Neotropical primates: Case study of the white-footed tamarin (Oedipomidas leucopus)","authors":"Juliana Tabares-Medina , Katherinne García-Blandón , Gisela M. García-Montoya , Iván Darío Soto-Calderón","doi":"10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101021","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101021","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Trypanosomes are blood parasites capable of infecting nearly any vertebrate. Many Neotropical primates frequently host trypanosomes and are considered potential reservoirs for <em>Trypanosoma cruzi</em> and other human-pathogenic trypanosomatids. However, diagnostic methods originally developed for detecting these trypanosomatids in humans and domestic species must be validated to reliably diagnose infections in non-human primates. Without such validation, taxonomic biases and incorrect assignments of wildlife reservoirs can occur. The white-footed tamarin (<em>Oedipomidas leucopus</em>), a primate endemic to northwestern Colombia, is classified by the World Health Organization as a reservoir of <em>T. cruzi</em>. However, this classification is based on studies with small sample sizes, ambiguous diagnostic methods, and questionable geographic records. In this study, the 18S ribosomal RNA gene was amplified via PCR and sequenced to estimate trypanosome infection rates and identify species in natural populations of <em>O. leucopus</em> across a wide geographic range, as well as in (<em>ex situ</em>) specimens. This molecular approach was also compared with traditional microscopy diagnosis using blood smears. The molecular diagnosis revealed that over 60% of the tested specimens were infected, whereas traditional microscopy resulted in 58% false negatives compared to the molecular method. A Bayesian phylogeny of the 18S gene identified <em>T. minasense</em> as the sole trypanosomatid species present in <em>O. leucopus</em>, with no detections of <em>T. cruzi</em> or other trypanosomatids of concern to human or domestic animal health. This study highlights the risk of overestimating the presence of human-infecting trypanosomes, such as <em>T. cruzi</em>, in tamarins and other vertebrates, and underscores the importance of validating diagnostic methods to accurately assess the zoonotic potential of wild species. Accurate identification of wildlife reservoirs is essential for understanding parasite life cycles and implementing effective management and conservation strategies for primates and other potential reservoirs.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54278,"journal":{"name":"International Journal for Parasitology-Parasites and Wildlife","volume":"25 ","pages":"Article 101021"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2024-11-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142697224","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-11-10DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101016
Ilhem Hamdi , Bouchra Benmansour , Mohammed Ahmed , Mehreen Gulsher , Chahinez Bouguerche
The study of the polyopisthocotylan parasites of marine fishes in the western Mediterranean is carried on using an integrative approach combining morphology and DNA barcodes. Ktarius patrickbrueli n. gen. n. sp (Polyopisthocotyla, Microcotylidae), from the gills of the pink dentex Dentex gibbosus (Teleostei, Sparidae) from the western Mediterranean Sea off Tunisia, is described. Anatomical and morphological features of the new genus are described, and the molecular barcodes for nuclear and mitochondrial markers (28S rRNA and cox1) are generated. The new genus is closely related to Microcotyle by sharing a symmetrical haptor, inverted question mark-shaped ovary and unarmed vagina. However, Ktarius n. gen. can be distinguished from Microcotyle and other Microcotylinae taxa by an unarmed male copulatory organ, formed by a long muscular cirrus, a basal layer of concentric muscles, and an elongated thick-walled ejaculatory bulb. A partial 28S rDNA sequence of K. patrickbrueli n. gen. n. sp. was obtained and found to be distinct from all known microcotylid sequences, with a p-distance of 5–13%. A phylogenetic tree constructed from available microcotylid sequences revealed that K. patrickbrueli n. gen. n. sp. clustered in a strongly supported clade of Microcotylinae, containing species of Omanicotyle, Bivagina, and Microcotyle confirming its belonging to the Microcotylinae subfamily. The cox1 sequences of K. patrickbrueli n. gen. n. sp. were highly divergent from the closely related genus Pauciconfibula and confirmed its distinction. This new genus is the third polyopisthocotylan genus to be described from sparids of Dentex.
采用形态学和 DNA 条形码相结合的综合方法，对地中海西部海洋鱼类的多肉孢子虫寄生虫进行了研究。本文描述了来自突尼斯附近地中海西部的粉红裸鲤 Dentex gibbosus（远洋鱼类，Sparidae）鳃中的 Ktarius patrickbrueli n. gen.描述了新属的解剖和形态特征，并生成了核和线粒体标记（28S rRNA 和 cox1）的分子条形码。该新属与 Microcotyle 亲缘关系密切，具有对称的触角、倒问号形子房和无臂阴道。然而，Ktarius n. gen. 与 Microcotyle 和其他 Microcotylinae 类群的区别在于其雄性交配器官无刺，由一个长的肌肉圈、一层同心的基底肌肉和一个拉长的厚壁射精管组成。获得了 K. patrickbrueli n. gen. n. sp.的部分 28S rDNA 序列，发现其与所有已知的微子囊虫序列不同，p-距离为 5-13%。根据现有的微子叶序列构建的系统发生树显示，K. patrickbrueli n. gen. n. sp.K. patrickbrueli n. gen. n. sp.的 cox1 序列与密切相关的 Pauciconfibula 属差异很大，证实了其与 Pauciconfibula 属的区别。这一新属是在 Dentex 的麻雀属中描述的第三个多裂藻属。
{"title":"A new genus and a new species of microcotylids (Polyopisthocotyla, Platyhelminthes), gill parasite of the pink dentex Dentex gibbosus (Teleostei, Sparidae) off Tunisia and notes on Polyopisthocotyla and Monopisthocotyla from Dentex spp.","authors":"Ilhem Hamdi , Bouchra Benmansour , Mohammed Ahmed , Mehreen Gulsher , Chahinez Bouguerche","doi":"10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101016","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101016","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The study of the polyopisthocotylan parasites of marine fishes in the western Mediterranean is carried on using an integrative approach combining morphology and DNA barcodes. <em>Ktarius patrickbrueli</em> n. gen. n. sp (Polyopisthocotyla, Microcotylidae), from the gills of the pink dentex <em>Dentex gibbosus</em> (Teleostei, Sparidae) from the western Mediterranean Sea off Tunisia, is described. Anatomical and morphological features of the new genus are described, and the molecular barcodes for nuclear and mitochondrial markers (28S rRNA and <em>cox</em>1) are generated. The new genus is closely related to <em>Microcotyle</em> by sharing a symmetrical haptor, inverted question mark-shaped ovary and unarmed vagina. However, <em>Ktarius</em> n. gen. can be distinguished from <em>Microcotyle</em> and other Microcotylinae taxa by an unarmed male copulatory organ, formed by a long muscular cirrus, a basal layer of concentric muscles, and an elongated thick-walled ejaculatory bulb. A partial 28S rDNA sequence of <em>K. patrickbrueli</em> n. gen. n. sp<em>.</em> was obtained and found to be distinct from all known microcotylid sequences, with a <em>p</em>-distance of 5–13%. A phylogenetic tree constructed from available microcotylid sequences revealed that <em>K. patrickbrueli</em> n. gen. n. sp. clustered in a strongly supported clade of Microcotylinae, containing species of <em>Omanicotyle</em>, <em>Bivagina,</em> and <em>Microcotyle</em> confirming its belonging to the Microcotylinae subfamily. The <em>cox</em>1 sequences of <em>K. patrickbrueli</em> n. gen. n. sp. were highly divergent from the closely related genus <em>Pauciconfibula</em> and confirmed its distinction. This new genus is the third polyopisthocotylan genus to be described from sparids of <em>Dentex</em>.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54278,"journal":{"name":"International Journal for Parasitology-Parasites and Wildlife","volume":"25 ","pages":"Article 101016"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2024-11-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142723782","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-11-08DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101018
David Ebmer , Maria Sophia Unterköfler , Zoë Tess Lara Lindhorst , Perrine Keiser , Simone Haderthauer , Stephan Hering-Hagenbeck , Anja Joachim
Toxocara vitulorum (Nematoda: Ascaridida) is a common parasite of cattle and buffaloes in tropical and subtropical regions and the causative agent of toxocarosis in calves. In Europe, sporadic infections have been reported in cattle, but also in bovines held at zoological gardens. Here, we report T. vitulorum infections in a herd of American bison (Bison bison) kept at the Vienna Zoo, Austria, which occurred in 2023 and 2024. After the first case in a seven-week-old calf in July 2023, another case in a five-week-old calf was diagnosed in May 2024, both of them detected by coproscopy and fecal discharge of adult worms after anthelminthic treatment. The calves originated from two different mothers imported to the zoo in 2014 from the Czech Republic and 2012 from Germany respectively. Both calves showed diarrhea and fecal soiling of the anal region prior to fecal analysis. Two intramuscular administrations of ivermectin (0.2 mg/kg bodyweight, two-week interval) caused the passing of up to 39 cm long gravid female worms, resulted in the cessation of egg shedding and improved fecal consistency. Morphological and molecular identification confirmed infections with T. vitulorum. Additionally, another calf, born in May 2024 from the mother of the calf that was T. vitulorum-positive in 2023, showed periods of diarrhea. Due to difficulties in taking individual samples, no definitive diagnosis of T. vitulorum infection could be made, however, the animal was also treated and clinically improved afterwards. Besides T. vitulorum, Eimeria spp. were detected in all samples and Giardia duodenalis genotype E in two samples in 2024. This case series highlights the possibility of unnoticed parasite introductions into zoological gardens via animals infected with resting parasite stages, and demonstrates the importance of regular individual parasitological analysis in bovine zoo animals during the first weeks after birth.
{"title":"Year after year: Recurrent Toxocara vitulorum infections in American bison (Bison bison) calves in a zoo","authors":"David Ebmer , Maria Sophia Unterköfler , Zoë Tess Lara Lindhorst , Perrine Keiser , Simone Haderthauer , Stephan Hering-Hagenbeck , Anja Joachim","doi":"10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101018","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101018","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>Toxocara vitulorum</em> (Nematoda: Ascaridida) is a common parasite of cattle and buffaloes in tropical and subtropical regions and the causative agent of toxocarosis in calves. In Europe, sporadic infections have been reported in cattle, but also in bovines held at zoological gardens. Here, we report <em>T. vitulorum</em> infections in a herd of American bison (<em>Bison bison</em>) kept at the Vienna Zoo, Austria, which occurred in 2023 and 2024. After the first case in a seven-week-old calf in July 2023, another case in a five-week-old calf was diagnosed in May 2024, both of them detected by coproscopy and fecal discharge of adult worms after anthelminthic treatment. The calves originated from two different mothers imported to the zoo in 2014 from the Czech Republic and 2012 from Germany respectively. Both calves showed diarrhea and fecal soiling of the anal region prior to fecal analysis. Two intramuscular administrations of ivermectin (0.2 mg/kg bodyweight, two-week interval) caused the passing of up to 39 cm long gravid female worms, resulted in the cessation of egg shedding and improved fecal consistency. Morphological and molecular identification confirmed infections with <em>T. vitulorum</em>. Additionally, another calf, born in May 2024 from the mother of the calf that was <em>T. vitulorum</em>-positive in 2023, showed periods of diarrhea. Due to difficulties in taking individual samples, no definitive diagnosis of <em>T. vitulorum</em> infection could be made, however, the animal was also treated and clinically improved afterwards. Besides <em>T. vitulorum</em>, <em>Eimeria</em> spp. were detected in all samples and <em>Giardia duodenalis</em> genotype E in two samples in 2024. This case series highlights the possibility of unnoticed parasite introductions into zoological gardens via animals infected with resting parasite stages, and demonstrates the importance of regular individual parasitological analysis in bovine zoo animals during the first weeks after birth.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54278,"journal":{"name":"International Journal for Parasitology-Parasites and Wildlife","volume":"25 ","pages":"Article 101018"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2024-11-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142697272","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-11-07DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101017
Daniela Ogonczyk-Makowska , François Fasquelle , Anaïs-Camille Vreulx , Angelo Scuotto , Amélie Degraeve , Bryan Thiroux , Louise Françoise Martin , Stamatios Alan Tahas , Jeanne Toft Jakobsen , Gregers Jungersen , Didier Betbeder
Toxoplasma gondii is a ubiquitous parasite causing significant mortality in captive wildlife, especially marsupials. Historically, treatment has been unrewarding and no vaccine was available. An intranasal vaccine based on purified inactivated T. gondii was developed for toxoplasmosis prevention. A vaccination campaign started in early 2017 and was successful in preventing toxoplasma-related mortality in marsupials in many European and South American zoos. Amongst the vaccinated wallabies, about 30% were T. gondii seropositive before the vaccination, and no toxoplasma-related deaths were observed since the administration of the vaccine. The objective of this case study was to assess the potential effect of the vaccination on a seropositive wallaby. It is important to note that this vaccine doesn't induce any humoral response in sheep, and squirrel monkeys but induces a strong T-cell response. A T. gondii seropositive Yellow-footed rock wallaby (Petrogale xanthopus) from Copenhagen Zoo received two doses of the aforementioned intranasal vaccine. Blood samples were collected before each vaccination and used for peripheral blood mononuclear cell isolation. The impact of the vaccination on the lymphocyte phenotype was characterized by flow cytometry. Cell size, represented by forward scatter, and granularity, represented by side scatter parameters were analyzed. Two doses of the vaccine induced a respective 30.1 and 25.6% increase in cell size and granularity in lymphocytes stimulated with T. gondii antigens, as assessed by flow cytometry. These changes were likely correlated with T-cell activation, which indicates that two doses of the vaccine might have boosted the already-existing T-cell memory response against T. gondii in a seropositive animal. No morphological changes were observed in lymphocytes from an unvaccinated seronegative wallaby. This is the first documented case of boosting an already-existing cellular immune response against toxoplasmosis by the vaccine in a seropositive Yellow-footed rock wallaby.
弓形虫是一种无处不在的寄生虫，会导致人工饲养的野生动物大量死亡，尤其是有袋动物。一直以来，治疗效果不佳，也没有疫苗可用。为预防弓形虫病，开发了一种基于纯化灭活弓形虫的鼻内疫苗。2017 年初开始的疫苗接种活动成功预防了许多欧洲和南美动物园有袋类动物与弓形虫相关的死亡。在接种疫苗的小袋鼠中，约有 30% 在接种疫苗前为弓形虫血清阳性，接种疫苗后未发现与弓形虫相关的死亡病例。本案例研究的目的是评估疫苗接种对血清反应阳性小袋鼠的潜在影响。值得注意的是，这种疫苗不会引起绵羊和松鼠猴的体液反应，但会引起强烈的 T 细胞反应。哥本哈根动物园的一只黄脚岩袋鼠（Petrogale xanthopus）的淋病双球菌血清反应呈阳性，接种了两剂上述鼻内疫苗。每次接种前都会采集血液样本，用于外周血单核细胞分离。疫苗接种对淋巴细胞表型的影响通过流式细胞术进行鉴定。分析了以正向散射表示的细胞大小和以侧向散射参数表示的细胞颗粒度。根据流式细胞术的评估，接种两剂疫苗后，淋巴细胞在淋巴结抗原刺激下的细胞大小和颗粒度分别增加了30.1%和25.6%。这些变化可能与 T 细胞活化有关，这表明两剂疫苗可能增强了血清反应阳性动物体内已经存在的针对淋病双球菌的 T 细胞记忆反应。在未接种疫苗的血清反应阴性壁虎的淋巴细胞中未观察到形态学变化。这是第一例通过疫苗增强血清反应呈阳性的黄脚岩袋鼠对弓形虫已有的细胞免疫反应的记录。
{"title":"Inactivated Toxoplasma gondii nanovaccine boosts T-cell memory response in a seropositive yellow-footed rock wallaby (Petrogale xanthopus) – A case report from Copenhagen Zoo","authors":"Daniela Ogonczyk-Makowska , François Fasquelle , Anaïs-Camille Vreulx , Angelo Scuotto , Amélie Degraeve , Bryan Thiroux , Louise Françoise Martin , Stamatios Alan Tahas , Jeanne Toft Jakobsen , Gregers Jungersen , Didier Betbeder","doi":"10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101017","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101017","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>Toxoplasma gondii</em> is a ubiquitous parasite causing significant mortality in captive wildlife, especially marsupials. Historically, treatment has been unrewarding and no vaccine was available. An intranasal vaccine based on purified inactivated <em>T. gondii</em> was developed for toxoplasmosis prevention. A vaccination campaign started in early 2017 and was successful in preventing toxoplasma-related mortality in marsupials in many European and South American zoos. Amongst the vaccinated wallabies, about 30% were T. gondii seropositive before the vaccination, and no toxoplasma-related deaths were observed since the administration of the vaccine. The objective of this case study was to assess the potential effect of the vaccination on a seropositive wallaby. It is important to note that this vaccine doesn't induce any humoral response in sheep, and squirrel monkeys but induces a strong T-cell response. A <em>T. gondii</em> seropositive Yellow-footed rock wallaby (<em>Petrogale xanthopus</em>) from Copenhagen Zoo received two doses of the aforementioned intranasal vaccine. Blood samples were collected before each vaccination and used for peripheral blood mononuclear cell isolation. The impact of the vaccination on the lymphocyte phenotype was characterized by flow cytometry. Cell size, represented by forward scatter, and granularity, represented by side scatter parameters were analyzed. Two doses of the vaccine induced a respective 30.1 and 25.6% increase in cell size and granularity in lymphocytes stimulated with <em>T. gondii</em> antigens, as assessed by flow cytometry. These changes were likely correlated with T-cell activation, which indicates that two doses of the vaccine might have boosted the already-existing T-cell memory response against <em>T. gondii</em> in a seropositive animal. No morphological changes were observed in lymphocytes from an unvaccinated seronegative wallaby. This is the first documented case of boosting an already-existing cellular immune response against toxoplasmosis by the vaccine in a seropositive Yellow-footed rock wallaby.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":54278,"journal":{"name":"International Journal for Parasitology-Parasites and Wildlife","volume":"25 ","pages":"Article 101017"},"PeriodicalIF":2.0,"publicationDate":"2024-11-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142655750","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2024-11-02DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.101014
Xiaoxu Wang , Meng Shang , Zihao Wang , Haoqiang Ji , Zhenxu Wang , Guangju Mo , Qiyong Liu
Understanding the drivers of parasite distribution is vital for ecosystem health, disease management, and vector monitoring. While studies note the impact of host sex, size, behavior, and season on parasite load, concurrent assessments of these factors and their interactions are limited. During the spring, summer and autumn seasons from 2021 to 2023, we trapped Daurian ground squirrel (Spermophilus dauricus), a small rodent species that inhabits eastern Asian grasslands in Inner Mongolia and collected their ectoparasites. Using machine learning Lasso regression, we pinpointed factors affecting tick and flea abundance on S. dauricus. We then analyzed these factors and their seasonal interactions with a mixed negative binomial generalized linear model. Our study revealed significant but inconsistent seasonal effects on the load of ectoparasites. The tick load was significantly higher in spring and summer compared to autumn, while the flea load was higher in summer and autumn but lacked statistical significance. Furthermore, individual factors that influence the flea and tick load were moderated by seasonal effects, with a male bias in flea parasitism observed in spring. Significant interactions were also found among seasonality, sex, and body weight. The load of male squirrel fleas was positively correlated with body weight, with the highest increase observed in spring. On the contrary, the flea load of female squirrels showed a negative correlation with body weight, significantly decreasing in the autumn with increasing weight. Significant interactions were observed between season and survival status, with hosts exhibiting higher tick load during autumn survival. Our findings underscore the importance of considering seasonal variation in parasitism and the interactions between seasonal dynamics and host biological traits in shaping parasite distributions.
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