Computers and Geotechnics最新文献

英文中文

Random structure modeling of soil and rock mixture and evaluation of its permeability using three-dimensional numerical manifold method

IF 5.3 1区工程技术 Q1 COMPUTER SCIENCE, INTERDISCIPLINARY APPLICATIONS

Computers and Geotechnics

Pub Date : 2025-01-20 DOI: 10.1016/j.compgeo.2025.107089

Yusen Zhang, Hong Zheng, Shan Lin

Soil and rock mixture (SRM) is complex geological material that frequently leads to ground collapses, landslides, and debris flows. The mechanical and hydraulic properties of SRM have consistently attracted extensive attention. However, due to the presence of both large and small rock blocks, both experimental investigations and traditional mesh based numerical methods face significant challenges in the accurate evaluation of SRM mechanical properties. The numerical manifold method (NMM) is an excellent choice for this purpose as it effectively overcomes obstacles to mesh generation of complex SRM. Before exploring the hydraulic properties of SRM by NMM, it is necessary to construct a random preserved structure model of SRM, where the rock blocks are randomly distributed in space under a seismic load, which is a primary cause of structural changes in SRM. Using an explicit iterative scheme called the continuous–discontinuous element method (CDEM), we simulated the redistribution of rock blocks in SRM under artificial or natural seismic loads. Finally, we concentrated on determining the influences of some factors on SRM permeability using three-dimensional numerical manifold method (3D-NMM).

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引用次数: 0

3D modelling of construction sequences and subsoil heterogeneity effects on the seismic response of shallow tunnels in complex topographical settings

IF 5.3 1区工程技术 Q1 COMPUTER SCIENCE, INTERDISCIPLINARY APPLICATIONS

Computers and Geotechnics

Pub Date : 2025-01-20 DOI: 10.1016/j.compgeo.2025.107077

Gaetano Falcone , Annamaria di Lernia , Gaetano Elia

For the seismic risk assessment of underground infrastructures, the construction of reliable numerical models may become challenging, especially in the case of old tunnels for which information about the geometry of the structure, the subsoil conditions and the excavation procedure are often unavailable. To assess the influence of the tunnel construction sequences and subsoil conditions on the tunnel lining force distribution, the paper describes a nonlinear 3D numerical analysis of the dynamic response of a shallow tunnel crossing a topographically complex area. The study is inspired by the case of the old Alvaro tunnel, located at the toe of a natural slope along the Basentana State Road (Matera, Italy). Two realistic tunnel construction sequences have been considered in the 3D models, implementing homogeneous and heterogenous subsoil conditions. The results show a clear correlation of the lining forces distribution with the cover depth variation and their overall increase after the seismic action related to the subsoil heterogeneity. The study highlights the potentiality of the 3D approach in estimating traction forces along the tunnel, that could practically inform the design of a monitoring system for the assessment of the tunnel serviceability limit state both during operating conditions and after an earthquake.

{"title":"3D modelling of construction sequences and subsoil heterogeneity effects on the seismic response of shallow tunnels in complex topographical settings","authors":"Gaetano Falcone , Annamaria di Lernia , Gaetano Elia","doi":"10.1016/j.compgeo.2025.107077","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.compgeo.2025.107077","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>For the seismic risk assessment of underground infrastructures, the construction of reliable numerical models may become challenging, especially in the case of old tunnels for which information about the geometry of the structure, the subsoil conditions and the excavation procedure are often unavailable. To assess the influence of the tunnel construction sequences and subsoil conditions on the tunnel lining force distribution, the paper describes a nonlinear 3D numerical analysis of the dynamic response of a shallow tunnel crossing a topographically complex area. The study is inspired by the case of the old Alvaro tunnel, located at the toe of a natural slope along the Basentana State Road (Matera, Italy). Two realistic tunnel construction sequences have been considered in the 3D models, implementing homogeneous and heterogenous subsoil conditions. The results show a clear correlation of the lining forces distribution with the cover depth variation and their overall increase after the seismic action related to the subsoil heterogeneity. The study highlights the potentiality of the 3D approach in estimating traction forces along the tunnel, that could practically inform the design of a monitoring system for the assessment of the tunnel serviceability limit state both during operating conditions and after an earthquake.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":55217,"journal":{"name":"Computers and Geotechnics","volume":"180 ","pages":"Article 107077"},"PeriodicalIF":5.3,"publicationDate":"2025-01-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143172573","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Load-controlled element-by-element method incorporating skew-boundary condition for soil-structure interactions: application to punch-through analysis of the 3D jack-up rig

IF 5.3 1区工程技术 Q1 COMPUTER SCIENCE, INTERDISCIPLINARY APPLICATIONS

Computers and Geotechnics

Pub Date : 2025-01-18 DOI: 10.1016/j.compgeo.2025.107079

Ty Phuor , Yanni Chen , Zhongxuan Yang , Chaofa Zhao

The jack-up structure is commonly used as the oil and gas platforms or the drilling rig in offshore applications with its major failure mode being punch-through failures. Numerical investigation of this punch-through behavior has rarely been performed through a full-scale 3D analysis considering both the complete jack-up structure and the underlying soils due to the high computational cost to solve such a large system with millions of degrees of freedom. This paper develops a new algorithm by combining the element-by-element preconditioned conjugate gradient method with (a) the interface model for the skew boundary condition, (b) a load-controlled algorithm based on the generalized stiffness parameter, and (c) the viscoplastic Mohr-Coulomb model for soils. Model verification is performed by comparing the simulated bearing capacity of a single spudcan with those obtained from different design methods (e.g., the ones by the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers (SNAME), International Organization for Standardization (ISO)) and numerical solutions. Then, the punch-through failure of a 3D jack-up rig resting on a layered soil is investigated with the full-scale 3D simulation. The bearing capacity of each spudcan is discussed and soil behaviors around spudscans during punch-through failures are investigated.

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引用次数: 0

Development and validation of deformation-dependent theoretical model for soil arching effect under unloading

IF 5.3 1区工程技术 Q1 COMPUTER SCIENCE, INTERDISCIPLINARY APPLICATIONS

Computers and Geotechnics

Pub Date : 2025-01-18 DOI: 10.1016/j.compgeo.2025.107078

Ren-Peng Chen , Xiang-Shen Fu , Qi-Wei Liu , Xiao-Hu Zhang , Han-Lin Wang

The evolution of soil arching effect is highly dependent on the variation of the unloading displacement or the soil differential displacement, while this issue has scarcely been addressed in a theoretical manner. In this study, a series of trapdoor tests were conducted on dry sand at various fill heights and relative densities. The testing results indicated that the evolution of soil arching effect followed the variation of shear bands closely. Based on the trapdoor testing results, a deformation-dependent theoretical model for soil arching effect was proposed under plane-strain condition. From the validation between the calculating results by the present theoretical model and the testing/simulating data from the present/previous studies, the present model succeeded to evaluate the evolution of the soil arching effect with the normalized trapdoor displacement. In addition, this model was validated to appropriately capture the characteristics of the soil arching effect, including the minimum/ultimate soil arching ratio and their corresponding normalized trapdoor displacements. Finally, a parametric study was performed on the present theoretical model, to assess the effects of fill height, trapdoor width, critical-state internal friction angle and initial relative density of soil on the soil arching effect, offering a technical reference for wider applications.

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引用次数: 0

Uplift mechanism of horizontal circular plate anchors under varying drainage conditions in sand

IF 5.3 1区工程技术 Q1 COMPUTER SCIENCE, INTERDISCIPLINARY APPLICATIONS

Computers and Geotechnics

Pub Date : 2025-01-17 DOI: 10.1016/j.compgeo.2025.107062

R. Kurniadi, A. Roy, S. Maitra, S.H. Chow, M.J. Cassidy

This note presents the finite element implementation of coupled stress-pore fluid diffusion analysis to capture the effect of varying drainage conditions on the monotonic uplift capacity of horizontal circular plate anchors in sand. The numerical model incorporates the modified SANISAND constitutive model and a soft porous elastic element at the soil–anchor interface to capture the interface tension developing below the anchor during uplift. The numerical results were validated against centrifuge model test results, producing good agreements. The effectiveness of the numerical model is demonstrated by the failure mechanisms and excess pore pressure distributions around the plate under different drainage conditions.

引用次数: 0

Numerical investigation of rock damage induced by bilateral–groove-slot shaped charge blasting under the influence of in-situ stresses

IF 5.3 1区工程技术 Q1 COMPUTER SCIENCE, INTERDISCIPLINARY APPLICATIONS

Computers and Geotechnics

Pub Date : 2025-01-17 DOI: 10.1016/j.compgeo.2025.107070

Yao Yin , Kamran Esmaeili , Qing Sun , Jie Cao

Blasting using shaped charge forms is widely extended to rock engineering. This study conducted numerical investigations to elucidate how in-situ stresses affect the damage patterns in rock blasting with Bilateral–Groove-Slot Shaped Charges (BGSSC). An innovative user-defined constitutive model was developed, which includes the modified Mohr-Coulomb strength criterion, combining the maximum tensile stress criterion, the strain rate effects of tensile/compressive strength, and tensile/compressive damage factors. The model was implemented into the ANSYS/LS-DYNA program and validated through a numerical simulation of Laurentian Granite rock blasting, thereby improving the feasibility of simulating rock blasting damage. Using the novel user-defined material model, three new computational models of BGSSC blasting in rocks were developed to investigate damage under uniaxial static compression/tension and varying lateral pressure coefficients. These models revealed the formation of continuous cracks and scattered damage, phenomena that were previously challenging to capture. The results show that, uniaxial compressive in-situ stress can suppress scattered damage across all cases, while tensile in-situ stress affects scattered damage depending on shaped charge orientations. The main cracks under different shaped charge orientations do not totally exhibit monotonic changes with vertical in-situ stress. Furthermore, both damage range ratios and effective stress attenuation coefficients are significantly affected by lateral pressure coefficients, which present diverse variation trends due to different shaped charge orientations. A constant lateral pressure coefficient sees the attenuation coefficient first increase and then decrease with the shaped charge orientation from 0° to 90°. This study may help develop more effective blast-induced damage prediction and control technologies.

{"title":"Numerical investigation of rock damage induced by bilateral–groove-slot shaped charge blasting under the influence of in-situ stresses","authors":"Yao Yin , Kamran Esmaeili , Qing Sun , Jie Cao","doi":"10.1016/j.compgeo.2025.107070","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.compgeo.2025.107070","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Blasting using shaped charge forms is widely extended to rock engineering. This study conducted numerical investigations to elucidate how in-situ stresses affect the damage patterns in rock blasting with Bilateral–Groove-Slot Shaped Charges (BGSSC). An innovative user-defined constitutive model was developed, which includes the modified Mohr-Coulomb strength criterion, combining the maximum tensile stress criterion, the strain rate effects of tensile/compressive strength, and tensile/compressive damage factors. The model was implemented into the ANSYS/LS-DYNA program and validated through a numerical simulation of Laurentian Granite rock blasting, thereby improving the feasibility of simulating rock blasting damage. Using the novel user-defined material model, three new computational models of BGSSC blasting in rocks were developed to investigate damage under uniaxial static compression/tension and varying lateral pressure coefficients. These models revealed the formation of continuous cracks and scattered damage, phenomena that were previously challenging to capture. The results show that, uniaxial compressive in-situ stress can suppress scattered damage across all cases, while tensile in-situ stress affects scattered damage depending on shaped charge orientations. The main cracks under different shaped charge orientations do not totally exhibit monotonic changes with vertical in-situ stress. Furthermore, both damage range ratios and effective stress attenuation coefficients are significantly affected by lateral pressure coefficients, which present diverse variation trends due to different shaped charge orientations. A constant lateral pressure coefficient sees the attenuation coefficient first increase and then decrease with the shaped charge orientation from 0° to 90°. This study may help develop more effective blast-induced damage prediction and control technologies.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":55217,"journal":{"name":"Computers and Geotechnics","volume":"180 ","pages":"Article 107070"},"PeriodicalIF":5.3,"publicationDate":"2025-01-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143172638","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

The role of geogrid aperture shape and size in strengthening aeolian sands: Insights from a coupled DEM-FDM approach

IF 5.3 1区工程技术 Q1 COMPUTER SCIENCE, INTERDISCIPLINARY APPLICATIONS

Computers and Geotechnics

Pub Date : 2025-01-16 DOI: 10.1016/j.compgeo.2025.107067

Xuening Ma, Fan Bai

In the design of reinforced structure, the shear strength of the reinforcement-soil interface is a key indicator of reinforcement efficacy, which is significantly influenced by the geometric characteristics of geogrids. At present, the research on how the geogrid mesh shape and aperture ratio of geogrid affect the interface shear response is not sufficient. In this study, the traditional biaxial geogrid and three new types of geogrids were selected, through the pull-out test and coupled discrete element method (DEM) and finite difference method (FDM), the influences of the arrangement of transverse ribs and the change of aperture ratio on the effect and mechanism of the reinforced-soil interface were explored. The optimal mesh shape suitable for reinforced aeolian sand and the optimal aperture size ratio under various shapes of geogrids were analyzed. Based on the analysis of the displacement, shear band distribution and porosity evolution of aeolian sand reinforced by different geogrids during the drawing process, the reinforcement effect and mechanism were revealed from the mesoscopic level. The research results provide important reference for the design of new geogrids and the reinforcement design of desert roadbeds.

{"title":"The role of geogrid aperture shape and size in strengthening aeolian sands: Insights from a coupled DEM-FDM approach","authors":"Xuening Ma, Fan Bai","doi":"10.1016/j.compgeo.2025.107067","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.compgeo.2025.107067","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In the design of reinforced structure, the shear strength of the reinforcement-soil interface is a key indicator of reinforcement efficacy, which is significantly influenced by the geometric characteristics of geogrids. At present, the research on how the geogrid mesh shape and aperture ratio of geogrid affect the interface shear response is not sufficient. In this study, the traditional biaxial geogrid and three new types of geogrids were selected, through the pull-out test and coupled discrete element method (DEM) and finite difference method (FDM), the influences of the arrangement of transverse ribs and the change of aperture ratio on the effect and mechanism of the reinforced-soil interface were explored. The optimal mesh shape suitable for reinforced aeolian sand and the optimal aperture size ratio under various shapes of geogrids were analyzed. Based on the analysis of the displacement, shear band distribution and porosity evolution of aeolian sand reinforced by different geogrids during the drawing process, the reinforcement effect and mechanism were revealed from the mesoscopic level. The research results provide important reference for the design of new geogrids and the reinforcement design of desert roadbeds.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":55217,"journal":{"name":"Computers and Geotechnics","volume":"180 ","pages":"Article 107067"},"PeriodicalIF":5.3,"publicationDate":"2025-01-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143104938","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Three-dimensional discrete element simulations of inherently anisotropic granular materials subjected to circular rotational shear stress path

IF 5.3 1区工程技术 Q1 COMPUTER SCIENCE, INTERDISCIPLINARY APPLICATIONS

Computers and Geotechnics

Pub Date : 2025-01-16 DOI: 10.1016/j.compgeo.2024.107040

M.Q. Xu , Z.X. Yang

Understanding the response of sand to complex loading conditions is vital for practical geotechnical engineering. Circular rotational shear is a special stress path where the magnitudes of three principal stresses vary following a circular stress trajectory in the π-plane with their directions fixed. Although experimental studies under such stress paths are limited, the discrete element method appears to be an appealing approach to examine the response of granular materials to varying complex loading paths in numerical “virtual” tests. This study presents comprehensive numerical simulations of granular samples subjected to a circular stress path under varying conditions, including samples prepared with different bedding-plane angles and densities and subjected to different stress ratios. Both macroscopic and microscopic behaviors are presented and interpreted. A contact-normal-based fabric tensor is adopted in a detailed analysis to measure the internal structure of the granular assembly. The fabric, strain, and strain increment tensors are decomposed with respect to the stress tensor, and the evolutions of these components are presented along with the key influential factors. The results obtained in this study provide useful physical insight for the development of constitutive models for granular soils under general loading conditions.

{"title":"Three-dimensional discrete element simulations of inherently anisotropic granular materials subjected to circular rotational shear stress path","authors":"M.Q. Xu , Z.X. Yang","doi":"10.1016/j.compgeo.2024.107040","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.compgeo.2024.107040","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Understanding the response of sand to complex loading conditions is vital for practical geotechnical engineering. Circular rotational shear is a special stress path where the magnitudes of three principal stresses vary following a circular stress trajectory in the π-plane with their directions fixed. Although experimental studies under such stress paths are limited, the discrete element method appears to be an appealing approach to examine the response of granular materials to varying complex loading paths in numerical “virtual” tests. This study presents comprehensive numerical simulations of granular samples subjected to a circular stress path under varying conditions, including samples prepared with different bedding-plane angles and densities and subjected to different stress ratios. Both macroscopic and microscopic behaviors are presented and interpreted. A contact-normal-based fabric tensor is adopted in a detailed analysis to measure the internal structure of the granular assembly. The fabric, strain, and strain increment tensors are decomposed with respect to the stress tensor, and the evolutions of these components are presented along with the key influential factors. The results obtained in this study provide useful physical insight for the development of constitutive models for granular soils under general loading conditions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":55217,"journal":{"name":"Computers and Geotechnics","volume":"180 ","pages":"Article 107040"},"PeriodicalIF":5.3,"publicationDate":"2025-01-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143172637","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Optimizing parameter combinations for clump models enabled by the bubble packing algorithm: Insights from geometrical and morphological approximation of typical geotechnical particles

IF 5.3 1区工程技术 Q1 COMPUTER SCIENCE, INTERDISCIPLINARY APPLICATIONS

Computers and Geotechnics

Pub Date : 2025-01-16 DOI: 10.1016/j.compgeo.2025.107061

Meng Fan , Dong Su , Ning Zhang , Guojun Cai , Xiangsheng Chen

The bubble packing algorithm has been widely used in previous DEM studies to generate clump models that approximate concave particle shapes. However, the selection of optimal parameters—specifically, the ratio

ρ_{r}

and distance

Φ

—is often subjective or based solely on volume ratios. This study offers a more comprehensive quantitative analysis by evaluating both the geometrical and morphological accuracy of clump assemblies generated using various combinations of

ρ_{r}

and

Φ

. The analysis focuses on typical geotechnical particles, including Fujian sand, ballast, and cobble particles. The study establishes correlations for the approximation degrees of each geometrical and morphological parameter and the average number of sub-spheres per clump in relation to

ρ_{r}

and

Φ

. Using a 5 % threshold for approximation accuracy, the optimal parameter combination of

ρ_{r}

and

Φ

is identified and verified for each type of particles. The findings of this paper can provide a useful reference for future studies that utilize the bubble packing algorithm to generate clump models for approximating geotechnical particle shapes.

{"title":"Optimizing parameter combinations for clump models enabled by the bubble packing algorithm: Insights from geometrical and morphological approximation of typical geotechnical particles","authors":"Meng Fan , Dong Su , Ning Zhang , Guojun Cai , Xiangsheng Chen","doi":"10.1016/j.compgeo.2025.107061","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.compgeo.2025.107061","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The bubble packing algorithm has been widely used in previous DEM studies to generate clump models that approximate concave particle shapes. However, the selection of optimal parameters—specifically, the ratio <span><math><msub><mi>ρ</mi><mi>r</mi></msub></math></span> and distance <span><math><mi>Φ</mi></math></span>—is often subjective or based solely on volume ratios. This study offers a more comprehensive quantitative analysis by evaluating both the geometrical and morphological accuracy of clump assemblies generated using various combinations of <span><math><msub><mi>ρ</mi><mi>r</mi></msub></math></span> and <span><math><mi>Φ</mi></math></span>. The analysis focuses on typical geotechnical particles, including Fujian sand, ballast, and cobble particles. The study establishes correlations for the approximation degrees of each geometrical and morphological parameter and the average number of sub-spheres per clump in relation to <span><math><msub><mi>ρ</mi><mi>r</mi></msub></math></span> and <span><math><mi>Φ</mi></math></span>. Using a 5 % threshold for approximation accuracy, the optimal parameter combination of <span><math><msub><mi>ρ</mi><mi>r</mi></msub></math></span> and <span><math><mi>Φ</mi></math></span> is identified and verified for each type of particles. The findings of this paper can provide a useful reference for future studies that utilize the bubble packing algorithm to generate clump models for approximating geotechnical particle shapes.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":55217,"journal":{"name":"Computers and Geotechnics","volume":"180 ","pages":"Article 107061"},"PeriodicalIF":5.3,"publicationDate":"2025-01-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143172578","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Pore water pressure of clay soil around large-diameter open-ended thin-walled pile (LOTP) during impact penetration

IF 5.3 1区工程技术 Q1 COMPUTER SCIENCE, INTERDISCIPLINARY APPLICATIONS

Computers and Geotechnics

Pub Date : 2025-01-15 DOI: 10.1016/j.compgeo.2025.107065

Wei Qin , Chen Ye , Jiayu Gao , Guoliang Dai , Dong Wang , Youkou Dong

This study investigates the pore water pressure (PWP) behavior of soil around large-diameter open-ended thin-walled piles (LOTPs) during impact driving using a large deformation finite-element method. A comparative analysis of the PWP accumulation curves of the soil inside, outside, and below the LOTP tips with different diameters and wall thicknesses during impact driving is conducted under the same hammering solution. The PWP development is dependent on the absolute distance from the pile surface to the location of the soil and the dimensions of the LOTP. The excess pore water pressure (EPWP) accumulates and gradually dissipates, and its level decreases with increasing pile diameter. However, a negative excess pore water pressure (Ne-EPWP) is identified during hammering. Based on the above findings and analyses, a PWP prediction equation for LOTP during driving is proposed, and the predicted curves are compared with the numerical results. The influence of PWP accumulation after penetration of 2d (d is the LOTP internal diameter) does not increase significantly. This equation can provide the initial distribution field of PWP in saturated clay for LOTPs, thereby facilitating pile drivability analyses.

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