Biological Psychology最新文献

WACARDIA: graphical MATLAB software for Wireless Assessment of CARDiac Interoceptive Accuracy. WACARDIA：用于无线评估 CARDiac Interoceptive Accuracy 的图形化 MATLAB 软件。

IF 2.7 3区医学 Q1 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Biological Psychology

Pub Date : 2024-11-14 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2024.108953

Ian R Kleckner, Jacob J Chung

Many theories of psychological function emphasize the importance of bodily sensations and the ability to accurately detect them, known as interoceptive accuracy. The most common measure of interoceptive accuracy uses heartbeat detection tasks such as the Whitehead Task, yet to our knowledge there are no freely accessible programs to conduct this task. In this paper, we present novel software called WACARDIA (Wireless Assessment of CARDiac Interoceptive Accuracy), which is free, open-source software that conducts the heartbeat detection task using Matlab and Psychtoolbox. WACARDIA contains several key features supporting participant engagement, operator convenience, and measurement accuracy. First, the program includes an optional practice trial of unlimited duration, a participant-facing graphical interface, and the ability to perform heartbeat detection training. Second, the operator is provided with a graphical user interface, live trial feedback, an accurate wireless electrocardiogram device, and a separate program to conduct the related Heartbeat Tracking task. Finally, the program ensures the accuracy of collected data by scheduling the delivery of tones with high precision and implementing fail-safes to automatically reset erroneous measurements. This paper includes flowcharts that help create transparency by describing our algorithm. We also outline customizable aspects of the program with the intent to have WACARDIA's algorithm expanded to accommodate more situations and applications. With this paper, we hope to encourage the practice of publicizing research software to contribute to the transparency, rigor, and reproducibility of scientific studies. WACARDIA and video tutorials are available at www.github.com/iankleckner/wacardia and http://wacardia.iankleckner.com.

许多心理功能理论都强调身体感觉的重要性，以及准确检测身体感觉的能力，也就是所谓的内感知准确性。最常用的衡量互感准确度的方法是心跳检测任务，如怀特海任务（Whitehead Task），但据我们所知，目前还没有可以免费使用的程序来完成这项任务。在本文中，我们介绍了一款名为 WACARDIA（Wireless Assessment of CARDiac Interoceptive Accuracy）的新型软件，它是一款免费的开源软件，可使用 Matlab 和 Psychtoolbox 执行心跳检测任务。WACARDIA 包含支持参与者参与、操作员便利性和测量准确性的几个关键功能。首先，该程序包括一个可选的无限期练习试验、一个面向参与者的图形界面以及进行心跳检测训练的功能。其次，操作员可使用图形用户界面、实时试验反馈、精确的无线心电图设备和单独的程序来执行相关的心跳跟踪任务。最后，该程序通过高精度的音调发送调度和自动重置错误测量的故障安全机制来确保所收集数据的准确性。本文包括流程图，通过描述我们的算法来帮助提高透明度。我们还概述了程序的可定制方面，目的是扩展 WACARDIA 算法，以适应更多情况和应用。我们希望通过本文鼓励公开研究软件的做法，以提高科学研究的透明度、严谨性和可重复性。WACARDIA 和视频教程请访问 www.github.com/iankleckner/wacardia 和 http://wacardia.iankleckner.com。

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引用次数: 0

Multiple risk markers for increases in depression symptoms across two years: Evidence from the reward positivity and the error-related negativity 两年内抑郁症状增加的多种风险标记：奖励积极性和错误相关消极性的证据。

IF 2.7 3区医学 Q1 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Biological Psychology

Pub Date : 2024-11-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2024.108897

Lidia Yan Xin Panier , Juhyun Park , Jens Kreitewolf , Anna Weinberg

Background

Both a blunted Reward Positivity (RewP) and Error-Related Negativity (ERN) have been associated with depression. Associations between these neural markers and depression have been observed cross-sectionally, but evidence that they can prospectively predict the development of, or increases in, symptoms of depression is more limited.

Method

In this study, we collected EEG data from 157 young adults at a baseline visit (T1), using the Doors and Flanker Tasks to elicit the RewP and the ERN respectively. Participants also reported on symptoms of depression at T1, and multiple times across two academic years (T2 – T8).

Results

Using a multilevel model with the RewP and the ERN as predictors, we found that the RewP predicted future symptoms of depression, while controlling for symptoms of depression at T1, such that a blunted RewP at baseline predicted higher depressive symptoms later. In our data, however, the ERN was not a significant predictor of increases in depression symptoms.

Conclusions

These findings replicate previous work showing the RewP prospectively predicted increases in depression, and further suggest the specificity of this association. Results support the utility of the RewP as a neurophysiological marker that can help clarify the etiology of depression and inform treatment planning.

背景：奖赏积极性（RewP）和错误相关负性（ERN）减弱与抑郁症有关。这些神经标记物与抑郁症之间的关联已被横断面观察到，但有证据表明它们可以预测抑郁症状的发展或增加，但这一证据较为有限：在这项研究中，我们在基线访问（T1）时收集了 157 名年轻成人的脑电图数据，使用门任务和侧翼任务分别诱发 RewP 和 ERN。参与者还在T1和两个学年（T2 - T8）内多次报告抑郁症状：使用以RewP和ERN为预测因子的多层次模型，我们发现RewP可预测未来的抑郁症状，同时控制了T1时的抑郁症状，因此基线时RewP减弱可预测日后抑郁症状的增加。然而，在我们的数据中，ERN 对抑郁症状的增加并没有显著的预测作用：这些研究结果重复了之前的研究结果，即 RewP 可预测抑郁症状的增加，并进一步表明了这种关联的特异性。研究结果支持将 RewP 作为一种神经生理标志物，有助于明确抑郁症的病因并为治疗计划提供依据。

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引用次数: 0

Face emojis vs. Non-face emojis: Exploring neural mechanisms in text processing 人脸表情符号与非人脸表情符号：探索文本处理中的神经机制。

IF 2.7 3区医学 Q1 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Biological Psychology

Pub Date : 2024-11-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2024.108898

Rong Cao, Jian Wang, Song Xue

With the rapid development of digital communication, emojis have played an increasingly important role in computer-mediated communication (CMC). Although Non-face emojis account for approximately 90 % of emoji usage, related research remains relatively scarce. Furthermore, there is limited exploration of the differences in the mechanisms of text processing between Face and Non-face emojis. The aim of this study is to investigate the neural mechanisms underlying the differences in text processing between Face emojis and Non-face emojis. We employed a semantic violation paradigm to analyze the cognitive processes of 28 participants as they processed texts in which emojis replaced words. The experimental materials consisted of 8 target stimuli, each corresponding to 15 text sentences. The results indicate that Non-face emojis elicited a strong N400 effect in incongruent texts, suggesting that Non-face emojis may have higher semantic complexity and can function as substitutes for words. In contrast, Face emojis primarily elicited an LNC component, indicating that they are more likely to be perceived as symbols of emotional expression rather than carriers of explicit semantic information. These results reveal the distinct roles of Face and Non-face emojis in text comprehension, providing new insights into emoji semantics and their impact on language processing.

随着数字通信的迅猛发展，表情符号在以计算机为媒介的通信（CMC）中扮演着越来越重要的角色。虽然非脸部表情符号约占表情符号使用量的 90%，但相关研究仍然相对较少。此外，对于表情符号和非表情符号之间文本处理机制差异的探索也很有限。本研究旨在探究人脸表情符号和非人脸表情符号文本处理差异的神经机制。我们采用了语义侵犯范式，分析了 28 名参与者在处理用表情符号替代文字的文本时的认知过程。实验材料包括 8 个目标刺激，每个目标刺激对应 15 个文本句子。结果表明，在不一致的文本中，非脸部表情符号引起了强烈的N400效应，这表明非脸部表情符号可能具有更高的语义复杂性，可以起到替代词语的作用。相比之下，脸部表情符号主要引起 LNC 成分，表明它们更有可能被视为情感表达的符号，而不是明确语义信息的载体。这些结果揭示了 "脸部 "和 "非脸部 "表情符号在文本理解中的不同作用，为了解表情符号语义及其对语言处理的影响提供了新的视角。

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引用次数: 0

Multimodal neuroimaging of hierarchical cognitive control 分层认知控制的多模态神经成像。

IF 2.7 3区医学 Q1 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Biological Psychology

Pub Date : 2024-11-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2024.108896

Mattia F. Pagnotta , Justin Riddle , Mark D'Esposito

Cognitive control enables us to translate our knowledge into actions, allowing us to flexibly adjust our behavior, according to environmental contexts, our internal goals, and future plans. Multimodal neuroimaging and neurostimulation techniques have proven essential for advancing our understanding of how cognitive control emerges from the coordination of distributed neuronal activities in the brain. In this review, we examine the literature on multimodal studies of cognitive control. We explore how these studies provide converging evidence for a novel, multiplexed model of cognitive control, in which neural oscillations support different levels of control processing along a functionally hierarchical organization of distinct frontoparietal networks.

认知控制使我们能够将知识转化为行动，让我们能够根据环境背景、内部目标和未来计划灵活调整自己的行为。事实证明，多模态神经成像和神经刺激技术对于促进我们理解认知控制是如何从大脑中分布式神经元活动的协调中产生的至关重要。在本综述中，我们将对认知控制的多模态研究文献进行梳理。我们将探讨这些研究是如何为一种新颖的多路复用认知控制模型提供汇合证据的，在该模型中，神经振荡沿着不同额叶网络的功能分层组织支持不同层次的控制处理。

引用次数: 0

Interpersonal stressors predicting inflammation in adolescents: Moderation by emotion regulation and heart rate variability? 预测青少年炎症的人际关系压力：情绪调节和心率变异的调节作用？

IF 2.7 3区医学 Q1 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Biological Psychology

Pub Date : 2024-11-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2024.108900

Nathalie Michels , Stefaan De Henauw , Joanna Klosowska , Kathleen Wijnant , Caroline Braet , Matteo Giletta

This study assessed interpersonal stressors (peer adversity and parental rejection) as predictors of adolescents’ circulating inflammatory markers, while examining emotion regulation and parasympathetic nervous system activity (at rest, reactivity, and recovery) as potential protective moderators. Data were collected in a Belgian cohort of adolescents in 2017 (n=185, 51.4 % boys, 10–18 y) and 2018 (n=98), and included serum inflammatory markers (CRP, TNFα, IFNγ, IL-6, IL-8 and IL-10), peer adversity, parental rejection, emotion regulation and heart rate variability (RMSSD-HRV, at rest and in 2018 also in response to a Trier Social Stress Test). Contrary to the hypothesis, interpersonal stressors were negatively related to TNFα (in 2017 and 2018), IFNγ (in 2017 and longitudinally) and IL-6 (in 2018). In 23 % of the tested associations, HRV at rest was a significant moderator: the negative stressor-inflammation associations were present only among adolescents with low HRV resting values. No significant moderation by HRV reactivity or recovery was detected. After correction for multiple testing, all above-mentioned significant findings disappeared. These unexpected findings may suggest that the positive association between stress exposure and circulating markers of inflammation is not yet detectable in adolescence and perhaps becomes evident only later in life.

本研究评估了人际压力源（同伴逆境和父母排斥）作为青少年循环炎症标志物的预测因素，同时研究了情绪调节和副交感神经系统活动（静息、反应和恢复时）作为潜在的保护性调节因素。研究人员于2017年（n=185，51.4%为男孩，10-18岁）和2018年（n=98）在比利时的一个青少年队列中收集了数据，包括血清炎症标志物（CRP、TNFα、IFNγ、IL-6、IL-8和IL-10）、同伴逆境、父母排斥、情绪调节和心率变异性（RMSSD-HRV，静息状态下，2018年还包括对特里尔社会压力测试的反应）。与假设相反，人际压力与TNFα（2017年和2018年）、IFNγ（2017年和纵向）和IL-6（2018年）呈负相关。在23%的测试关联中，静息时心率变异是一个重要的调节因子：只有在静息时心率变异值较低的青少年中，才会出现压力源-炎症的负向关联。没有发现心率变异反应性或恢复性有明显的调节作用。在对多重测试进行校正后，上述所有重要发现都消失了。这些出乎意料的发现可能表明，压力暴露与循环炎症标记物之间的正相关在青少年时期还无法检测到，也许只有在以后的生活中才会变得明显。

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引用次数: 0

The effects of transcranial direct current stimulation over the ventromedial prefrontal cortex on reactive aggression in intoxicated and sober individuals 经颅直流电刺激内侧前额叶皮层对醉酒者和清醒者攻击行为的影响

IF 2.7 3区医学 Q1 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Biological Psychology

Pub Date : 2024-11-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2024.108899

Elizabeth Summerell , William Xiao , Chloe Huang , Jaden Terranova , Gadi Gilam , Paolo Riva , Thomas F. Denson

Alcohol-related aggression is a widely observed phenomenon that has detrimental effects on both individuals and society, putatively caused by dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex. The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) plays a critical role in representing the reward value of future actions. Emerging research has suggested that transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the vmPFC can reduce aggression. However, no study has examined whether tDCS can mitigate intoxicated aggression. In this study, 153 healthy participants consumed alcohol or not and completed the anger-infused Ultimatum Game with simultaneous double-blind anodal tDCS or sham over the bilateral vmPFC. For participants in the anodal tDCS condition, intoxicated participants were less aggressive than sober participants when insulted. However, among sober participants, anodal tDCS increased aggression. For participants in the alcohol condition, we observed no differences in aggression between the anodal tDCS and the sham tDCS conditions. These findings provide mixed support for tDCS as a means to attenuate intoxicated aggression.

与酒精有关的攻击行为是一种被广泛观察到的现象，对个人和社会都造成了有害影响，其原因可能是前额叶皮层功能紊乱。腹内侧前额叶皮层（vmPFC）在表示未来行为的奖励价值方面起着至关重要的作用。新近的研究表明，经颅直流电刺激（tDCS）vmPFC 可以减少攻击行为。但是，还没有研究表明经颅直流电刺激（tDCS）是否能减轻醉酒后的攻击行为。在这项研究中，153 名健康参与者饮酒或不饮酒，在完成充满愤怒的 "最后通牒游戏 "后，同时在双侧 vmPFC 上进行双盲阳极 tDCS 或假性 tDCS。在阳极 tDCS 条件下，醉酒参与者在受到侮辱时的攻击性低于清醒参与者。然而，在清醒的参与者中，阳极 tDCS 增加了攻击性。对于酒精条件下的参与者，我们观察到阳极 tDCS 和假 tDCS 条件下的攻击性没有差异。这些研究结果为将 tDCS 作为减轻醉酒后攻击行为的一种手段提供了不同的支持。

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引用次数: 0

Expectation to rewards modulates learning emotional words: Evidence from a hierarchical Bayesian model 对奖励的期望调节情绪词的学习：来自分层贝叶斯模型的证据。

IF 2.7 3区医学 Q1 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Biological Psychology

Pub Date : 2024-11-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2024.108895

Weiwei Zhang , Yingyu Li , Chuan Zhou , Baike Li , John W. Schwieter , Huanhuan Liu , Meng Liu

In language acquisition, individuals learn the emotional value of words through external feedback. Previous studies have used emotional words as experimental materials to explore the cognitive mechanisms underlying emotional language processing, but have failed to recognize that languages are acquired in changing environments. To this end, this study aims to combine reinforcement learning with emotional word learning, using a probabilistic reversal learning task to explore how individuals acquire the valence of emotional words in a dynamically changing environment. Computational modeling on both behavioral and event-related potential (ERP) data revealed that individuals’ expectations to rewards modulated the learning speed and temporal processing of emotional words, demonstrating a clear negative bias. Specifically, as the expected value increased, individuals responded faster and exhibited higher amplitudes for negative emotional words. These findings shed light on the neural mechanisms of emotional word learning in a volatile environment, highlighting the crucial role of expectations in this process and a preference for learning negative information.

在语言习得过程中，个体通过外部反馈来学习词语的情感价值。以往的研究使用情感词作为实验材料来探索情感语言加工的认知机制，但没有认识到语言是在不断变化的环境中习得的。为此，本研究旨在将强化学习与情感词学习相结合，使用概率反转学习任务来探索个体如何在动态变化的环境中获得情感词的价值。对行为和事件相关电位（ERP）数据进行计算建模后发现，个体对奖励的预期调节了情绪词的学习速度和时间处理，表现出明显的负偏差。具体来说，随着期望值的增加，个体对负面情绪词的反应速度更快，振幅也更高。这些发现揭示了动荡环境中情绪词学习的神经机制，强调了期望值在这一过程中的关键作用以及学习负面信息的偏好。

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引用次数: 0

Interpersonal distance affects advisors’ responses to feedback on their advice: Evidence from event-related potentials 人际距离影响顾问对其建议反馈的反应：事件相关电位的证据。

IF 2.7 3区医学 Q1 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Biological Psychology

Pub Date : 2024-10-19 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2024.108894

Jin Li , Mei Li , Yu Sun , Guanfei Zhang , Wei Fan , Yiping Zhong

Advisors typically receive two types of feedback: whether their advice is accepted and benefits the advisee. However, the effect of interpersonal distance on advisors' feedback responses remains unexplored. Therefore, to examine this association, we used an advice-giving task in which participants acted as advisors to either friends or strangers through event-related potentials (ERP). Participants received feedback reflecting whether their advice was accepted or rejected and the advisee’s outcome (gains or losses). Participants’ electroencephalograms were recorded when receiving feedback. Results revealed that rejections from friends elicited stronger feedback-related negativity (FRN) than acceptances from friends. Furthermore, acceptances from friends triggered larger late positive components (LPCs) than rejections from friends. No such effects were observed when the advisee was a stranger. Moreover, a stronger FRN was observed for losses than gains when strangers accepted the advice; however, this difference was not observed when strangers rejected the advice. In addition, friends’ gains elicited a larger P300 than losses, regardless of whether friends accepted the advice; however, for strangers, this P300 difference was observed only when the advice was accepted. When strangers accepted the advice, gains elicited larger LPCs than losses; however, this difference was not observed when strangers rejected the advice. These results revealed that the interpersonal distance between people affected how they responded to feedback on advice. This was demonstrated by the neural responses related to expectations, motivational significance, and emotional arousal. It also suggests that the psychological processes by which interpersonal distance influences feedback processing change over the stages.

顾问通常会收到两类反馈：他们的建议是否被接受以及是否有利于被建议者。然而，人际距离对顾问反馈反应的影响仍未得到研究。因此，为了研究这种关联，我们使用了一个给出建议的任务，让参与者通过事件相关电位（ERP）扮演朋友或陌生人的顾问。参与者收到的反馈反映了他们的建议是否被接受或拒绝，以及被建议者的结果（收益或损失）。参与者在接受反馈时的脑电图被记录下来。结果显示，与接受朋友的建议相比，拒绝朋友的建议会引起更强的反馈相关负性（FRN）。此外，来自朋友的接受比来自朋友的拒绝引发更大的后期积极成分（LPC）。当被建议者是陌生人时，则没有观察到这种效应。此外，当陌生人接受建议时，与收益相比，损失的 FRN 更强；但当陌生人拒绝建议时，则没有观察到这种差异。此外，无论朋友是否接受建议，朋友的收益都比损失引起更大的 P300；然而，对于陌生人，只有当建议被接受时，才能观察到这种 P300 差异。当陌生人接受建议时，收益引起的 LPC 比损失大；然而，当陌生人拒绝建议时，就观察不到这种差异了。这些结果表明，人与人之间的距离会影响他们对建议反馈的反应。与期望、动机意义和情绪唤醒相关的神经反应证明了这一点。这也表明，人际距离影响反馈处理的心理过程会随着阶段的变化而变化。

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引用次数: 0

Supervised structure learning 有监督的结构学习

IF 2.7 3区医学 Q1 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Biological Psychology

Pub Date : 2024-10-19 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2024.108891

Karl J. Friston , Lancelot Da Costa , Alexander Tschantz , Alex Kiefer , Tommaso Salvatori , Victorita Neacsu , Magnus Koudahl , Conor Heins , Noor Sajid , Dimitrije Markovic , Thomas Parr , Tim Verbelen , Christopher L. Buckley

This paper concerns structure learning or discovery of discrete generative models. It focuses on Bayesian model selection and the assimilation of training data or content, with a special emphasis on the order in which data are ingested. A key move—in the ensuing schemes—is to place priors on the selection of models, based upon expected free energy. In this setting, expected free energy reduces to a constrained mutual information, where the constraints inherit from priors over outcomes (i.e., preferred outcomes). The resulting scheme is first used to perform image classification on the MNIST dataset to illustrate the basic idea, and then tested on a more challenging problem of discovering models with dynamics, using a simple sprite-based visual disentanglement paradigm and the Tower of Hanoi (cf., blocks world) problem. In these examples, generative models are constructed autodidactically to recover (i.e., disentangle) the factorial structure of latent states—and their characteristic paths or dynamics.

本文涉及离散生成模型的结构学习或发现。它侧重于贝叶斯模型选择和训练数据或内容的同化，特别强调数据摄取的顺序。在随后的方案中，一个关键的举措是根据预期自由能对模型的选择进行先验。在这种情况下，预期自由能简化为受约束的互信息，其中的约束条件来自于对结果（即首选结果）的优先权。为了说明基本思想，我们首先使用所产生的方案在 MNIST 数据集上进行图像分类，然后使用一个简单的基于精灵的视觉解缠范例和河内塔（参见积木世界）问题，在发现具有动态性的模型这一更具挑战性的问题上进行了测试。在这些例子中，生成模型是自动构建的，以恢复（即分解）潜在状态的因子结构及其特征路径或动态。

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引用次数: 0

Compensating for the mobile menace with extra effort: A pupillometry investigation of the mere presence effect of smartphones 用额外的努力来弥补手机的威胁：对智能手机单纯存在效应的瞳孔测量调查。

IF 2.7 3区医学 Q1 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Biological Psychology

Pub Date : 2024-10-16 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2024.108893

S. Tabitha Steendam , Nicoleta Prutean , Fleur Clybouw , Joshua O. Eayrs , Nanne Kukkonen , Wim Notebaert , Ruth M. Krebs , Jan R. Wiersema , C. Nico Boehler

Previous research suggests that the mere presence of a smartphone can detrimentally affect performance. However, other studies failed to observe such detrimental effects. A limitation of existing studies is that no indexes of (potentially compensating) effort were included. Further, time-on-task effects have been unexplored. Here, we address these limitations by investigating the mere-presence effect of a smartphone on performance in two continuous-performance experiments (Experiment 1 using an n-back and a number judgement task at two difficulty levels, and Experiment 2 using a pure, challenging n-back task), measuring pupil size to assess invested effort, and taking into account time-on-task effects. Finally, contrary to previous studies that predominantly used between-subject designs, we utilized within-subject designs in both experiments. Contrary to expectations, Experiment 1 largely yielded no significant effects of smartphone presence on performance. Nonetheless, the presence of a smartphone triggered larger tonic pupil size in the more difficult task, and a more rapid decrease over time. Experiment 2 similarly failed to demonstrate smartphone effects on performance, but replicated the finding of larger tonic pupil size in the presence of a smartphone. In addition, tonic pupil size showed a slower decrease over time when a smartphone was present. In Experiment 2, we could furthermore look at phasic pupil size, which decreased over time in the absence of a phone but not in its presence. These findings suggest a complex relationship between smartphone presence, effort, and time-on-task, which does not necessarily express itself behaviorally, highlighting in particular the need to also explore potential contributions of (compensatory) effort.

以往的研究表明，智能手机的存在会对学习成绩产生不利影响。然而，其他研究未能观察到这种不利影响。现有研究的一个局限性是没有纳入（潜在的补偿性）努力指标。此外，任务时间的影响也未被探讨。在此，我们针对这些局限性，在两个连续表现实验中（实验一使用两种难度的n-back和数字判断任务，实验二使用纯粹的、具有挑战性的n-back任务）研究了智能手机仅仅存在对表现的影响，测量瞳孔大小以评估投入的努力，并考虑了任务中的时间效应。最后，与以往主要采用主体间设计的研究不同，我们在两个实验中都采用了主体内设计。与预期相反，实验 1 在很大程度上没有发现智能手机的存在对成绩的显著影响。尽管如此，在难度较高的任务中，智能手机的存在还是会导致瞳孔变大，并且随着时间的推移，瞳孔缩小的速度也会加快。实验 2 同样未能证明智能手机对成绩的影响，但重复了智能手机存在时瞳孔变大的结果。此外，当智能手机出现时，强直性瞳孔大小随着时间的推移减小得更慢。在实验 2 中，我们还可以进一步观察相位瞳孔大小，在没有手机的情况下，相位瞳孔大小会随着时间的推移而减小，而在有手机的情况下则不会。这些研究结果表明，智能手机的存在、努力和任务时间之间存在着复杂的关系，而这种关系并不一定会通过行为表现出来。

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引用次数: 0