Pub Date : 2021-07-19DOI: 10.1007/s00236-020-00390-7
Supreeti Kamilya, Jarkko Kari
Nilpotent cellular automata have the simplest possible dynamics: all initial configurations lead in bounded time into the unique fixed point of the system. We investigate nilpotency in the setup of one-dimensional non-uniform cellular automata (NUCA) where different cells may use different local rules. There are infinitely many cells in NUCA but only a finite number of different local rules. Changing the distribution of the local rules in the system may drastically change the dynamics. We prove that if the available local rules are such that every periodic distribution of the rules leads to nilpotent behavior then so do also all eventually periodic distributions. However, in some cases there may be non-periodic distributions that are not nilpotent even if all periodic distributions are nilpotent. We demonstrate such a possibility using aperiodic Wang tile sets. We also investigate temporally periodic points in NUCA. In contrast to classical uniform cellular automata, there are NUCA—even reversible equicontinuous ones—that do not have any temporally periodic points. We prove the undecidability of this property: there is no algorithm to determine if a NUCA with a given finite distribution of local rules has a periodic point.
{"title":"Nilpotency and periodic points in non-uniform cellular automata","authors":"Supreeti Kamilya, Jarkko Kari","doi":"10.1007/s00236-020-00390-7","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s00236-020-00390-7","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Nilpotent cellular automata have the simplest possible dynamics: all initial configurations lead in bounded time into the unique fixed point of the system. We investigate nilpotency in the setup of one-dimensional non-uniform cellular automata (NUCA) where different cells may use different local rules. There are infinitely many cells in NUCA but only a finite number of different local rules. Changing the distribution of the local rules in the system may drastically change the dynamics. We prove that if the available local rules are such that every periodic distribution of the rules leads to nilpotent behavior then so do also all eventually periodic distributions. However, in some cases there may be non-periodic distributions that are not nilpotent even if all periodic distributions are nilpotent. We demonstrate such a possibility using aperiodic Wang tile sets. We also investigate temporally periodic points in NUCA. In contrast to classical uniform cellular automata, there are NUCA—even reversible equicontinuous ones—that do not have any temporally periodic points. We prove the undecidability of this property: there is no algorithm to determine if a NUCA with a given finite distribution of local rules has a periodic point.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":7189,"journal":{"name":"Acta Informatica","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.6,"publicationDate":"2021-07-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1007/s00236-020-00390-7","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"50037377","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-07-19DOI: 10.1007/s00236-021-00400-2
Ahmad Ostovar, Suna Bensch, Thomas Hellström
The ability to understand the surrounding environment and being able to communicate with interacting humans are important functionalities for many automated systems where visual input (e.g., images, video) and natural language input (speech or text) have to be related to each other. Possible applications are automatic image caption generation, interactive surveillance systems, or human robot interaction. In this paper, we propose algorithms for automatic responses to natural language queries about an image. Our approach uses a predefined neural net for detection of bounding boxes and objects in images, spatial relations between bounding boxes are modeled with a neural net, the queries are analyzed with a syntactic parser, and algorithms to map natural language to properties in the images are introduced. The algorithms make use of semantic similarity and antonyms. We evaluate the performance of our approach with test users assessing the quality of our system’s generated answers.
{"title":"Natural language guided object retrieval in images","authors":"Ahmad Ostovar, Suna Bensch, Thomas Hellström","doi":"10.1007/s00236-021-00400-2","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s00236-021-00400-2","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>The ability to understand the surrounding environment and being able to communicate with interacting humans are important functionalities for many automated systems where visual input (e.g., images, video) and natural language input (speech or text) have to be related to each other. Possible applications are automatic image caption generation, interactive surveillance systems, or human robot interaction. In this paper, we propose algorithms for automatic responses to natural language queries about an image. Our approach uses a predefined neural net for detection of bounding boxes and objects in images, spatial relations between bounding boxes are modeled with a neural net, the queries are analyzed with a syntactic parser, and algorithms to map natural language to properties in the images are introduced. The algorithms make use of semantic similarity and antonyms. We evaluate the performance of our approach with test users assessing the quality of our system’s generated answers.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":7189,"journal":{"name":"Acta Informatica","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.6,"publicationDate":"2021-07-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1007/s00236-021-00400-2","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"45642608","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-07-19DOI: 10.1007/s00236-021-00397-8
Henning Bordihn, Markus Holzer
We introduce a new measure of descriptional complexity on finite automata, called the number of active states. Roughly speaking, the number of active states of an automaton A on input w counts the number of different states visited during the most economic computation of the automaton A for the word w. This concept generalizes to finite automata and regular languages in a straightforward way. We show that the number of active states of both finite automata and regular languages is computable, even with respect to nondeterministic finite automata. We further compare the number of active states to related measures for regular languages. In particular, we show incomparability to the radius of regular languages and that the difference between the number of active states and the total number of states needed in finite automata for a regular language can be of exponential order.
{"title":"On the number of active states in finite automata","authors":"Henning Bordihn, Markus Holzer","doi":"10.1007/s00236-021-00397-8","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s00236-021-00397-8","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>We introduce a new measure of descriptional complexity on finite automata, called the number of active states. Roughly speaking, the number of active states of an automaton <i>A</i> on input <i>w</i> counts the number of different states visited during the most economic computation of the automaton <i>A</i> for the word <i>w</i>. This concept generalizes to finite automata and regular languages in a straightforward way. We show that the number of active states of both finite automata and regular languages is computable, even with respect to nondeterministic finite automata. We further compare the number of active states to related measures for regular languages. In particular, we show incomparability to the radius of regular languages and that the difference between the number of active states and the total number of states needed in finite automata for a regular language can be of exponential order.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":7189,"journal":{"name":"Acta Informatica","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.6,"publicationDate":"2021-07-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1007/s00236-021-00397-8","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"50037376","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-07-19DOI: 10.1007/s00236-020-00391-6
Hiroshi Umeo, Naoki Kamikawa, Gen Fujita
A synchronization problem in cellular automata has been known as the Firing Squad Synchronization Problem (FSSP), where the FSSP gives a finite-state protocol for synchronizing a large scale of cellular automata. A quest for smaller state FSSP solutions has been an interesting problem for a long time. It has been shown by Balzer (Inf Control 10:22–42, 1967), Sanders (in: Jesshope, Jossifov, Wilhelmi (eds) Proceedings of the VI international workshop on parallel processing by cellular automata and arrays, Akademie, Berlin, 1994) and Berthiaume et al. (Theoret Comput Sci 320:213–228, 2004) that there exists no 4-state FSSP solution in arrays and rings. The number four is the state lower bound in the class of FSSP protocols. Umeo et al. (Parallel Process Lett 19(2):299–313, 2009), by introducing a concept of full versus partial FSSP solutions, provided a list of the smallest 4-state symmetric powers-of-2 FSSP protocols that can synchronize any one-dimensional (1D) ring cellular automata of length (n=2^{k}) for any positive integer (k ge 1). Afterwards, Ng (in: Partial solutions for the firing squad synchronization problem on rings, ProQuest Publications, Ann Arbor, MI, 2011) also added a list of asymmetric FSSP partial solutions, thus completing the 4-state powers-of-2 FSSP partial solutions. A question whether there are any 4-state partial solutions for ring lengths other than powers-of-2 has remained open. In this paper, we answer the question by providing a new class of the smallest symmetric and asymmetric 4-state FSSP protocols that can synchronize any 1D ring of length (n=2^{k}-1) for any positive integer (k ge 2). We show that the class includes a rich variety of FSSP protocols that consists of 39 symmetric and 132 asymmetric solutions, ranging from minimum to linear synchronization time. In addition, we make an investigation into several interesting properties of those partial solutions, such as swapping general states, transposed protocols, a duality property between them, and an inclusive property of powers-of-2 solutions.
细胞自动机中的一个同步问题被称为射击队同步问题(FSSP),其中FSSP给出了一个用于同步大规模细胞自动机的有限状态协议。长期以来,寻求较小状态的FSSP解决方案一直是一个有趣的问题。Balzer(Inf-Control 10:22-421967)、Sanders(在:Jesshope,Jossifov,Wilhelmi(eds)Proceedings of the VI international workshop on parallel processing by cellular automatics and arrays,Akademie,Berlin,1994)和Berthiaume等人(Theoret Comput Sci 320:213-2282004)已经表明,在阵列和环中不存在四态FSSP解。数字4是FSSP协议类中的状态下界。Umeo等人(Parallel Process Lett 19(2):299–3132009),通过引入完全与部分FSSP解决方案的概念,提供了一个最小的4态对称二次方FSSP协议列表,该协议可以对任何正整数同步长度为(n=2^{k})的任何一维(1D)环元胞自动机。之后,Ng(在:环上行刑队同步问题的部分解决方案,ProQuest Publications,Ann Arbor,MI,2011)还添加了一个非对称FSSP部分解决方案列表,从而完成了FSSP部分解的4态二次幂。除了2的幂之外,环长度是否有任何4态偏解的问题仍然悬而未决。在本文中,我们通过提供一类新的最小对称和非对称4态FSSP协议来回答这个问题,该协议可以同步任何长度为(n=2)的1D环^{k}-1)对于任何正整数(kge2)。我们表明,该类包括丰富多样的FSSP协议,包括39个对称和132个非对称解决方案,从最小到线性同步时间不等。此外,我们还研究了这些偏解的几个有趣的性质,如交换一般状态、转置协议、它们之间的对偶性质以及2次方解的包含性质。
{"title":"A new class of the smallest FSSP partial solutions for 1D rings of length (n=2^{k}-1)","authors":"Hiroshi Umeo, Naoki Kamikawa, Gen Fujita","doi":"10.1007/s00236-020-00391-6","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s00236-020-00391-6","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>A synchronization problem in cellular automata has been known as the Firing Squad Synchronization Problem (FSSP), where the FSSP gives a finite-state protocol for synchronizing a large scale of cellular automata. A quest for smaller state FSSP solutions has been an interesting problem for a long time. It has been shown by Balzer (Inf Control 10:22–42, 1967), Sanders (in: Jesshope, Jossifov, Wilhelmi (eds) Proceedings of the VI international workshop on parallel processing by cellular automata and arrays, Akademie, Berlin, 1994) and Berthiaume et al. (Theoret Comput Sci 320:213–228, 2004) that there exists no 4-state FSSP solution in arrays and rings. The number four is the state lower bound in the class of FSSP protocols. Umeo et al. (Parallel Process Lett 19(2):299–313, 2009), by introducing a concept of <i>full</i> versus <i>partial</i> FSSP solutions, provided a list of the smallest 4-state <i>symmetric</i> powers-of-2 FSSP protocols that can synchronize any one-dimensional (1D) ring cellular automata of length <span>(n=2^{k})</span> for any positive integer <span>(k ge 1)</span>. Afterwards, Ng (in: Partial solutions for the firing squad synchronization problem on rings, ProQuest Publications, Ann Arbor, MI, 2011) also added a list of <i>asymmetric</i> FSSP partial solutions, thus completing the 4-state powers-of-2 FSSP partial solutions. A question whether there are any 4-state partial solutions for ring lengths other than powers-of-2 has remained open. In this paper, we answer the question by providing a new class of the smallest symmetric and asymmetric 4-state FSSP protocols that can synchronize any 1D ring of length <span>(n=2^{k}-1)</span> for any positive integer <span>(k ge 2)</span>. We show that the class includes a rich variety of FSSP protocols that consists of 39 <i>symmetric</i> and 132 <i>asymmetric</i> solutions, ranging from minimum to linear synchronization time. In addition, we make an investigation into several interesting properties of those partial solutions, such as swapping general states, transposed protocols, a duality property between them, and an inclusive property of powers-of-2 solutions.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":7189,"journal":{"name":"Acta Informatica","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.6,"publicationDate":"2021-07-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1007/s00236-020-00391-6","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"50037381","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-07-19DOI: 10.1007/s00236-021-00398-7
Sebastian Jakobi, Katja Meckel, Carlo Mereghetti, Beatrice Palano
We consider the notion of a constant length queue automaton—i.e., a traditional queue automaton with a built-in constant limit on the length of its queue—as a formalism for representing regular languages. We show that the descriptional power of constant length queue automata greatly outperforms that of traditional finite state automata, of constant height pushdown automata, and of straight line programs for regular expressions, by providing optimal exponential and double-exponential size gaps. Moreover, we prove that constant height pushdown automata can be simulated by constant length queue automata paying only by a linear size increase, and that removing nondeterminism in constant length queue automata requires an optimal exponential size blow-up, against the optimal double-exponential cost for determinizing constant height pushdown automata. Finally, we investigate the size cost of implementing Boolean language operations on deterministic and nondeterministic constant length queue automata.
{"title":"The descriptional power of queue automata of constant length","authors":"Sebastian Jakobi, Katja Meckel, Carlo Mereghetti, Beatrice Palano","doi":"10.1007/s00236-021-00398-7","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s00236-021-00398-7","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>We consider the notion of a <i>constant length queue automaton</i>—i.e., a traditional queue automaton with a built-in constant limit on the length of its queue—as a formalism for representing regular languages. We show that the descriptional power of constant length queue automata greatly outperforms that of traditional finite state automata, of constant height pushdown automata, and of straight line programs for regular expressions, by providing optimal exponential and double-exponential size gaps. Moreover, we prove that constant height pushdown automata can be simulated by constant length queue automata paying only by a linear size increase, and that removing nondeterminism in constant length queue automata requires an optimal exponential size blow-up, against the optimal double-exponential cost for determinizing constant height pushdown automata. Finally, we investigate the size cost of implementing Boolean language operations on deterministic and nondeterministic constant length queue automata.\u0000</p></div>","PeriodicalId":7189,"journal":{"name":"Acta Informatica","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.6,"publicationDate":"2021-07-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1007/s00236-021-00398-7","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"50037378","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2021-07-19DOI: 10.1007/s00236-020-00391-6
H. Umeo, N. Kamikawa, Gen Fujita
{"title":"A new class of the smallest FSSP partial solutions for 1D rings of length \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 \u0000 $$n=2^{k}-1$$\u0000 \u0000 \u0000 n\u0000 =\u0000 \u0000 2\u0000 k\u0000 ","authors":"H. Umeo, N. Kamikawa, Gen Fujita","doi":"10.1007/s00236-020-00391-6","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00236-020-00391-6","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":7189,"journal":{"name":"Acta Informatica","volume":null,"pages":null},"PeriodicalIF":0.6,"publicationDate":"2021-07-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1007/s00236-020-00391-6","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"44714965","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"计算机科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}