Additive manufacturing letters最新文献

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Comparative analysis of machining and electropolishing for surface quality improvement of shape memory nitinol samples additively manufactured by laser powder bed fusion

IF 4.2 Q2 ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURING

Additive manufacturing letters

Pub Date : 2025-02-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.addlet.2024.100261

Rodrigo Zapata Martínez , Shohom Bose-Bandyopadhyay , Alan Burl , Óscar Contreras-Almengor , Carlos Aguilar Vega , Kyle Saleeby , Thomas Kurfess , Andrés Díaz Lantada , Jon Molina-Aldareguia

Nickel-titanium (NiTi) or nitinol alloys exhibit high corrosion resistance, mechanical strength, biocompatibility, and smart properties, rendering them ideal materials for active biomedical devices. Traditional manufacturing techniques struggle with these alloys, prompting the adoption of Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF) as a viable alternative for producing geometrically challenging features. However, L-PBF inherently introduces geometric inconsistencies and surface defects, necessitating post-processing. Electropolishing and chemical etching, while effective for surface smoothing, result in non-conformal material removal, potentially altering the designed geometry. This study examines the use of machining as a post-processing method to achieve uniform material removal and maintain geometric fidelity. Planar spring-shaped actuators were fabricated via L-PBF and subsequently machined to their final geometry using a Computer Numerical Controlled (CNC) system. The actuators were assessed for geometric accuracy and shape memory properties. Machining of the actuators lead to a near homogeneous thickness of 300 µm in all cases, whereas the electropolished + chemically etched samples varied dramatically from <50 µm to over 400 µm in thickness. The findings demonstrate that CNC machining effectively enhances the geometric precision of L-PBF-manufactured NiTi components, while preserving shape memory characteristics. This research underscores the potential of integrating L-PBF with CNC machining to improve the precision and functionality of NiTi-based biomedical devices.

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引用次数: 0

Resin-dependent mechanical anisotropy in laser vat photopolymerization correlates to the initial rate of polymerization and critical energy

IF 4.2 Q2 ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURING

Additive manufacturing letters

Pub Date : 2025-02-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.addlet.2024.100264

Dagoberto Torres-Alvarez, Angel Celis-Guzman, Alan Aguirre-Soto

The degree of mechanical anisotropy in objects printed with laser vat photopolymerization (VPP) remains controversial. It has been stated that objects with a higher degree of mechanical isotropy are produced with VPP as compared to other polymer-based additive manufacturing techniques, such as fused filament fabrication (FFF). However, reports on the evaluation of resin-dependency of the mechanical anisotropy obtained with VPP are scarce. Furthermore, the degree of anisotropy (DA) was quantified using different procedures. Here, six commercial resins were selected to evaluate how the DA correlates to the initial rate of polymerization (R_P0), critical energy (E_C), and penetration depth (D_P) for materials with a broader range of properties. State-of-the-art procedures to calculate the degree of mechanical anisotropy are discussed, and an ideal method is proposed, namely, the ratio of the standard deviations related to the inter- and intra-layer forces: DA=(sd_inter/sd_intra). The elastic modulus (E) was confirmed isotropic with the three resins that were previously reported. However, objects printed with the additional resins that polymerize at higher initial rates (R_P0 =72.1 mM/s) and with lower critical energies (E_C = 0.36 mJ/cm²) appear more anisotropic. A linear trend was obtained for the scaling of the mechanical DA with R_P0. Moreover, a logarithmic correlation between E_C and the DA in E was found, which appears inappropriate for E_C as a function of the DA in the maximum stress (σ_Max). This study aims to spur research on the mechanisms underlying the dependence of the mechanical DA on the resin-curing behavior for objects fabricated by VPP.

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引用次数: 0

Micro-X-ray-CT for analysis of particle size segregation during powder spreading in Binder Jet Printing

IF 4.2 Q2 ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURING

Additive manufacturing letters

Pub Date : 2025-02-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.addlet.2024.100266

Julia G. Behnsen , Joseph W. Roberts , Oliver J. Rogan , James M. McArdle , Kate Black

The uniformity of the powder bed in Binder Jet Printing can impact the final properties of additively manufactured components. Granular flow phenomena, such as particle size segregation can influence the uniformity of the powder bed. Due to the 3D nature of the powder bed and the standard requirement for sintering parts following printing, direct experimental observation of the particle distribution and packing density can be difficult. The use of Micro-X-ray-CT however, enables the high-resolution imaging of components manufactured by binder jetting and allows quantification of particle size distribution and packing density throughout the powder bed. This study analyses the periodicity of effects such as in-layer particles size segregation and packing density. The results presented here show that particles segregate by size within each layer of the binder jet printed sample, which resulted in a periodic density change within each layer. The particle size distribution changes over the length of the power-bed, with the volume fraction of smaller particles increased near the front of the powder bed, and the volume fraction of larger particles increased near the back. The insights gained from the Micro-X-ray-CT characterisation approach allow for an enhanced understanding of the powder spreading process in additive manufacturing, paving the way forward for possible part optimisation.

粘合剂喷射印刷中粉末床的均匀性会影响快速成型部件的最终性能。粒度偏析等颗粒流动现象会影响粉末床的均匀性。由于粉末床的三维性质和打印后部件烧结的标准要求，很难对颗粒分布和堆积密度进行直接实验观察。然而，使用 Micro-X 射线-计算机断层扫描可以对通过粘合剂喷射制造的部件进行高分辨率成像，并对整个粉末床的粒度分布和堆积密度进行量化。本研究分析了层内颗粒尺寸偏析和堆积密度等效应的周期性。研究结果表明，在粘合剂喷射打印的样品中，每层内的颗粒都会发生尺寸偏析，从而导致每层内的密度发生周期性变化。颗粒尺寸分布在粉末床的长度方向上发生变化，较小颗粒的体积分数在靠近粉末床前部的位置增加，而较大颗粒的体积分数在靠近粉末床后部的位置增加。从显微 X 射线-计算机断层扫描表征方法中获得的启示有助于加深对增材制造中粉末铺展过程的理解，为可能的零件优化铺平道路。

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引用次数: 0

Calibration and compensation of 5-axis 3D-printers for printed electronics 校准和补偿用于印刷电子产品的 5 轴 3D 打印机

IF 4.2 Q2 ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURING

Additive manufacturing letters

Pub Date : 2025-02-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.addlet.2024.100265

Daniel Ahlers, Tom Schmolzi, German Junca, Jianwei Zhang, Florens Wasserfall

5-axis 3D printing presents a promising approach to overcome the limitations of traditional 3-axis methods, particularly in the domain of printed electronics where conformal conductive connections are printed onto the surface of freeform objects. However, this additional freedom comes with a demand for high positioning accuracy, as the rotary movements amplify small axis deviations through the lever effect. This paper presents an approach for an automatically self-calibrating low-cost 5-axis printing system using a built-in 3D touch probe. The calibration data is used to generate a precise kinematic printer model in the Unified Robot Description Format (URDF). Our inverse kinematic solver uses this model in our pathplanning software to generate fully compensated G-code trajectories, maintaining the correct position without needing an expensive high-precision motion system. First results are presented as evaluation which were printed on our low-cost 5-axis system with 3D-printed rotary axes, demonstrating the capability to reliably print circuits on imprecise hardware. The calibration process can be executed quickly and automatically every time the printer is restarted. This approach makes multi-axis 3D printing more accessible and increases potential uses, leading to more precise and cost-effective manufacturing solutions.

五轴三维打印技术为克服传统三轴方法的局限性提供了一种前景广阔的方法，尤其是在将保形导电连接打印到自由形态物体表面的打印电子领域。然而，这种额外的自由度对高定位精度提出了要求，因为旋转运动会通过杠杆效应放大小的轴偏差。本文介绍了一种利用内置 3D 触摸探头自动自校准低成本 5 轴打印系统的方法。校准数据用于在统一机器人描述格式（URDF）中生成精确的运动学打印机模型。我们的逆运动学求解器在路径规划软件中使用该模型生成完全补偿的 G 代码轨迹，无需昂贵的高精度运动系统即可保持正确的位置。首批评估结果在我们的低成本五轴系统上打印出来，并带有三维打印的旋转轴，证明了在不精确的硬件上可靠打印电路的能力。每次重新启动打印机时，校准过程都能快速自动执行。这种方法使多轴三维打印更容易获得，并增加了潜在用途，从而带来了更精确、更具成本效益的制造解决方案。

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引用次数: 0

Thermo-mechanical response of aluminum alloy in the additive friction-stir deposition process

IF 4.2 Q2 ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURING

Additive manufacturing letters

Pub Date : 2025-02-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.addlet.2024.100263

Chowdhury Sadid Alam , Vahid Karami , Shengmin Guo , M Shafiqur Rahman

Additive Friction Stir Deposition (AFSD) is an emerging solid-state additive manufacturing (AM) technique that creates fully dense metallic structures with equiaxed fine microstructures. The feedstock material is plasticized via frictional heating and deposited in the solid state. Due to the complex multi-physics nature of the process, an in-depth understanding of the interplay between material flow, temperature variations, and stress distribution within the deposited layers under various process parameters is crucial for achieving desired outcomes. This study focuses on the development of a plasticity-based computational model that employs a coupled Eulerian-Lagrangian (CEL) finite element methodology to analyze the thermo-mechanical response of the AA6061-T6 alloy in the AFSD process. By incorporating essential AFSD process variables namely, tool rotation speed, tool traverse speed, and material deposition rate, the model can accurately forecast the flow of material, temperature fluctuations, and stress distribution across different operational settings. For instance, an optimal solid-state deposition of AA 6061-T6 alloy is achieved with 380 RPM tool rotation speed, 0.9 mm/s tool traverse speed, and 0.3 mm/s material deposition rate for the geometry reported in this study. The CEL model is validated by comparing its results (e.g., peak temperature) with the experimental data and published computational results for the same combination of process parameters, giving the maximum errors of 8 % and 2.8 %, respectively. Through the utilization of this proposed model, a practical and efficient means of predicting process results is established, enabling a rapid and cost-effective optimization of the AFSD process parameters for different scale of the feed material, tool, and substrate. Ultimately, this advancement contributes to the progression of solid-state AM techniques and development of digital twins by streamlining the process with scalability, multifunctionality, and a variety of material selections.

增材摩擦搅拌沉积（AFSD）是一种新兴的固态增材制造（AM）技术，可制造出具有等轴细微结构的全致密金属结构。原料通过摩擦加热塑化，然后在固态下沉积。由于该工艺具有复杂的多物理特性，深入了解各种工艺参数下沉积层内材料流动、温度变化和应力分布之间的相互作用对于实现预期结果至关重要。本研究的重点是开发基于塑性的计算模型，该模型采用欧拉-拉格朗日（CEL）耦合有限元方法来分析 AA6061-T6 合金在 AFSD 工艺中的热机械响应。该模型结合了重要的 AFSD 工艺变量，即工具旋转速度、工具移动速度和材料沉积速率，可以准确预测不同操作设置下的材料流动、温度波动和应力分布。例如，对于本研究中报告的几何形状，在 380 RPM 的工具旋转速度、0.9 mm/s 的工具移动速度和 0.3 mm/s 的材料沉积速率下，AA 6061-T6 合金实现了最佳固态沉积。通过将 CEL 模型的结果（如峰值温度）与相同工艺参数组合下的实验数据和已公布的计算结果进行比较，验证了该模型的有效性，得出的最大误差分别为 8 % 和 2.8 %。通过使用该模型，建立了一种实用、高效的工艺结果预测方法，可针对不同规模的进料、工具和基体，快速、经济地优化 AFSD 工艺参数。最终，通过简化工艺流程，使其具有可扩展性、多功能性和多种材料选择性，这一进展有助于固态 AM 技术的进步和数字双胞胎的开发。

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引用次数: 0

Liquid-induced heat treatment strategy for eliminating anisotropy of IN718 fabricated by laser powder bed fusion

IF 4.2 Q2 ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURING

Additive manufacturing letters

Pub Date : 2025-02-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.addlet.2024.100262

Zhuoyu Li , Xiaogang Hu , Fan Zhou , Zhifang Shi , Zhiwei Lyu , Zhen Xu , Yu Li , Xin Zhao , Hongxing Lu , Qiang Zhu

The laser-based additive manufacturing process often results in highly textured columnar grain structures along the build direction, leading to undesirable anisotropic mechanical properties in most industrial applications. Tailored heat treatments are currently the predominant approach to address anisotropy issues. However, the lack of driving force for recrystallization during the post-heat treatment within laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) makes this method inapplicable to the process. Here, we develop a novel liquid-induced heat treatment (LIHT) post-processing. The intergranular liquid film is introduced to facilitate the columnar-to-equiaxed transition of grains in IN718 alloy fabricated by LPBF. Microstructures and mechanical properties parallel and perpendicular to the build direction have been analyzed. The degree of anisotropy in ultimate strength was reduced from 21.1% to 3.5%. The anisotropy in creep performance also decreased from 52.1% to 11.3%. LIHT is anticipated to be a typical process for eliminating the anisotropy in the mechanical properties of metallic components.

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引用次数: 0

Microstructure-sensitive mechanical behavior of an additively manufactured psuedoelastic shape memory alloy

IF 4.2 Q2 ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURING

Additive manufacturing letters

Pub Date : 2025-01-28 DOI: 10.1016/j.addlet.2025.100270

Patxi Fernandez-Zelaia , Chris Ledford , Chris M. Fancher , Sarah Graham , Taresh Guleria , Brad Sampson , Fred List III , Jason Mayeur , Chins Chinnasamy , Mohammad Elahinia , Michael M. Kirka

The additive manufacturing of shape memory alloys into complex geometries enables fabrication of advanced functional systems across a variety of fields and domains. This work presents results focused on the mechanical behavior of additively manufactured shape memory pseudoelastic NiTi. The deformation induced solid state phase transformation from austenite to martensite allows this system to accommodate large recoverable strains. This deformation behavior is fundamentally driven by crystal-scale transformation physics. Laser powder bed fusion processing reveals that the resulting microstructure, both grain morphology and crystallographic texture, is strongly dependent on the manufacturing processing history. Exhaustive mechanical testing demonstrates that these microstructural factors strongly impact both tensile and cyclic stress–strain behavior. Cyclic dissipative behavior, however, is similar across all tested microstructures following an initial transient period. Remarkably, analysis of spatial strain fields during tensile loading reveals two distinctly different localization “modes”. The first is initiation of localized deformation bands which continuously propagate through the tensile bar during loading. In the second mode localization is observed but lacks propagation; instead additional localization cites nucleate during subsequent loading. The latter phenomena is suspected to be driven by grain-scale deformation physics as the localized band morphologies coincide with grain morphologies. These phenomena strongly impact the resulting aggregate stress–strain behavior. Hence, manufacturers and designers of psuedoelastic functional components must at the very least consider the potential variability in properties when considering additive manufacturing processing. More ideally the process–structure–property relations can be used to further tailor and optimize final functional performance.

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引用次数: 0

Investigation on curing strategies for metal binder jetting with Ti-6Al-4V

IF 4.2 Q2 ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURING

Additive manufacturing letters

Pub Date : 2025-01-25 DOI: 10.1016/j.addlet.2025.100272

Kevin Janzen , Timo Rieß , Claus Emmelmann

Metal binder jetting is a promising manufacturing technology that holds the potential to be a future competition technology to classic laser based additive manufacturing processes. In contrast to these technologies, however, metal binder jetting is much less mature. While sintering and debinding are already well known due to the spread of metal injection molding and powder deposition by laser powder bed fusion and its related processes, the often-neglected curing step represents a major challenge in process control. This study was therefore the first comprehensive investigation into the curing of metal binder jetting green parts from Ti-6Al-4 V powder with a powder size distribution below 25 µm. It was shown that the curing step has only a minor effect on the green part quality (surface roughness and density), but at the same time has a decisive influence on the green strength. In addition, position-dependent effects for the green density were detected, which indicate insufficient curing in the outer areas of the print box.

引用次数: 0

Study on metallurgical interface and grain refinement effect in AlMgSc alloy reinforced with HEAs particles formed by arc-direct energy deposition

IF 4.2 Q2 ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURING

Additive manufacturing letters

Pub Date : 2025-01-20 DOI: 10.1016/j.addlet.2025.100271

Shihao Shi, Yingying Ren, Shihao Kang, Yongqin Liu, Chenyu Liu, Yaning He, Yinghui Zhou

On the basis of the AlMgSc alloy formed by Arc-DED (Arc Directed Energy Deposition), we adopted a method of coaxially depositing powder and wire layer by layer to fabricate the AlMgSc alloy enhanced by (HEAs) High Entropy Alloys. The HEAs powder exhibited favorable metallurgical bonding with the α-Al matrix, and the elements such as Co, Fe, and Ni in the HEAs particles obviously diffused towards the matrix at the interface. The addition of HEAs powder significantly refined the microstructure. The average grain size of the AlMgSc alloy was 40.7 ± 13.9 μm, while that of the AlMgSc-HEAs alloy was 14.5 ± 4.9 μm, with a 64 % reduction in grain size. Compared with the AlMgSc alloy, the yield strength (YS) of the AlMgSc-HEAs alloy was increased by 9 %.

引用次数: 0

Effects of extreme deposition rate on the microstructure evolution of additive friction stir deposited AA6061 alloy

IF 4.2 Q2 ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURING

Additive manufacturing letters

Pub Date : 2025-01-19 DOI: 10.1016/j.addlet.2025.100269

Lu Jiang, Ramesh Varma, Mahendra Ramajayam, Thomas Dorin, Matthew Robert Barnett, Daniel Fabijanic

Additive manufacturing (AM) using additive friction stir deposition (AFSD) offers unique advantages over traditional liquid-solid state transitions, notably the ability to plasticise materials through frictional and deformation heat and build a bulk deposit via discrete layers without melting. Although inherently a large-scale and high deposition rate process, the boundaries of deposition rates have not been explored. In this work, we explored a deposition rate 4–29 times faster than typical for aluminium AFSD processing. The microstructure analyses of the deposited AA6061 alloys reveal a distinct grain structure and precipitation between the slow and fast depositions, attributed to the varied thermal and mechanical histories stemming from differences in tool velocity. The AFSD process also effectively refines the constituent intermetallic phases, resulting in more uniform sizes due to high temperatures and strains experienced during deposition. Energy consumption analysis revealed significant efficiency improvement associated with the fast deposition.

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引用次数: 0

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