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Oxidation behavior of Cu–Ag alloy in-situ manufactured via laser powder bed fusion 通过激光粉末床熔化原位制造的铜银合金的氧化行为
IF 4.2 Q2 ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURING Pub Date : 2024-07-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.addlet.2024.100228
Nadia Azizi , Hamed Asgari , Ehsan Toyserkani

The oxidation behavior of copper-silver (Cu–Ag) alloy with the structure of triply periodic minimal surfaces (TPMS) processed by laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) was investigated at 300 °C and 600 °C. The lightweight TPMSs increase surface area, boosting measurement sensitivity in oxidation studies. The presence of silver enhances oxidation resistance of Cu–Ag alloy compared to that of pure copper by slowing down the oxidation process and thinning the oxide layer. This suggests that silver in the alloy potentially suppresses the outward diffusion of copper from the substrate to the oxide layer. This effect is evident in the oxidation rate curves, where the introduction of silver changes the oxidation kinetics from a linear rate in Cu to a parabolic rate in Cu–2 wt.% Ag at 300 °C. Moreover, at 600 °C, silver induces a slower parabolic rate in Cu–2 wt.% Ag compared to Cu.

通过激光粉末床熔融(LPBF)技术,研究了具有三重周期性极小表面(TPMS)结构的铜银(Cu-Ag)合金在 300 ℃ 和 600 ℃ 下的氧化行为。轻质 TPMS 增加了表面积,提高了氧化研究中的测量灵敏度。与纯铜相比,银的存在通过减缓氧化过程和减薄氧化层增强了铜银合金的抗氧化性。这表明合金中的银有可能抑制铜从基底向氧化层的向外扩散。这种效应在氧化速率曲线中很明显,在 300 °C 时,银的引入使氧化动力学从铜的线性速率变为 Cu-2 wt.% Ag 的抛物线速率。此外,在 600 °C 时,与铜相比,银在 Cu-2 wt.% Ag 中产生的抛物线速率更慢。
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引用次数: 0
Extracting powder bed features via electron optical images during electron beam powder bed fusion 通过电子束粉末床融合过程中的电子光学图像提取粉末床特征
Q2 ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURING Pub Date : 2024-05-07 DOI: 10.1016/j.addlet.2024.100220
Matthias Markl, Mohammad Reza Azadi Tinat, Timo Berger, Jakob Renner, Carolin Körner

Electron beam powder bed fusion offers the unique opportunity to observe the process by measuring scattered electrons on a metal detector. This technique is the state of the art in generating electron optical images of the build area after melting using single- or multi-detector setups. The images enable the detection of surface defects like porosity or material transport by reconstructing the surface topography. Internal defects such as layer-bonding defects cannot be identified. Many of these defects, particularly layer-bonding defects, often originate from an irregular distribution of the powder bed.

This work introduces an additional process step by recording an electron optical image after the distribution of the powder bed. Combining this with an electron optical image after melting the previous layer enables extraction of powder bed features such as the current powder bed height. The underlying method bases on the correlation of experimental measurements and numerical simulations of the intensity of the electron optical signal for different powder bed heights. With this approach, it is possible to identify irregular powder distributions, such as uncovered areas of previously molten material or locally varying powder bed heights. This information is crucial for online monitoring and real time process control. Exemplary, this opens the opportunity of healing the powder bed by an additional raking step.

电子束粉末床熔化为通过测量金属探测器上的散射电子来观察熔化过程提供了独特的机会。这种技术是目前最先进的技术,可使用单个或多个探测器装置生成熔化后构建区域的电子光学图像。通过重建表面形貌,这些图像可以检测到孔隙或材料传输等表面缺陷。而内部缺陷(如层结合缺陷)则无法识别。其中许多缺陷,尤其是层结合缺陷,往往源于粉末床的不规则分布。这项工作引入了一个额外的工艺步骤,即在粉末床分布后记录电子光学图像。结合熔化上一层后的电子光学图像,可以提取粉末床的特征,如当前粉末床的高度。该方法的基础是对不同粉末床层高度的电子光学信号强度进行实验测量和数值模拟。通过这种方法,可以识别不规则的粉末分布,例如之前熔融材料的未覆盖区域或局部变化的粉末床层高度。这些信息对于在线监测和实时过程控制至关重要。例如,这就为通过额外的碾压步骤修复粉末床提供了机会。
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引用次数: 0
Active-mixing printhead for on-the-fly composition adjustment of multi component materials in Direct Ink Writing 用于在直接墨水书写中即时调整多组分材料成分的主动式混合喷头
Q2 ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURING Pub Date : 2024-05-03 DOI: 10.1016/j.addlet.2024.100217
Simon Teves , Tobias Biermann , Arved Ziebehl , Jan Gerrit Eckert , Ole Hill , Panpan Xia , Merve Wollweber , Tammo Ripken , Nadja C. Bigall , Roland Lachmayer

Multi-Material Additive Manufacturing (MMAM) enables the grading of material properties and the integration of functions within printed parts. While most MMAM methods are limited to process single-component or pre-mixed multi-component materials, the in-process mixing and extrusion of multi-component materials enables innovative material properties and use cases. When processing liquid multi-component materials, the individual component streams need to be homogenized in-process, but the required volume in conventional passive mixing hinders rapid transitions in material composition. In this paper, a two component printhead is presented which combines an active mixing approach with a continuous composition adjustment for a third additive. The approach to control the mixing composition is to influence the hydrodynamic equilibrium of individual material streams before merging them near the point of extrusion. The printhead’s functionality is verified in terms of mixing homogeneity and transition speed between material compositions.

多材料增材制造(MMAM)可实现材料性能的分级以及打印部件功能的集成。虽然大多数多材料增材制造方法仅限于加工单组分或预混合的多组分材料,但多组分材料的加工过程中混合和挤压可实现创新的材料特性和使用案例。在加工液态多组分材料时,需要在加工过程中均化各个组分流,但传统的被动混合所需的体积阻碍了材料成分的快速转换。本文介绍了一种双组分喷头,它将主动混合方法与第三种添加剂的连续成分调整相结合。控制混合成分的方法是,在挤出点附近合并各个材料流之前,影响它们的流体动力平衡。喷头的功能在混合均匀度和材料成分之间的转换速度方面得到了验证。
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引用次数: 0
Effect of process atmosphere on microstructure, melt pool, texture, precipitate characteristics, and mechanical properties of laser powder bed fusion Fe-12Cr-6Al 工艺气氛对激光粉末床熔融 Fe-12Cr-6Al 的微观结构、熔池、纹理、析出物特征和力学性能的影响
Q2 ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURING Pub Date : 2024-05-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.addlet.2024.100219
Omer Cakmak , Seong Gyu Chung , Seung-Hoon Lee , JiHoe Koo , Hwasung Yeom , Jung-Wook Cho

This study investigates the impact of atmospheres (Ar and N2) on Fe-12Cr-6Al alloy fabricated using laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) in terms of melt pool shape/size, microstructure, precipitate characteristics, and mechanical properties. The sample built in the N2 atmosphere exhibited lower porosity, wider melt pools, and no Al2O3 agglomeration. Oxygen content decreased from 0.012 to 0.0045 (wt.%), and nitrogen content increased from 0.013 to 0.02 (wt.%). The Ar-printed sample had a yield strength (YS) of 232 ± 15 MPa, ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of 286 ± 10 MPa, and total elongation (TE) of 6.4 ± 1.3 %, while the N2-printed sample showed significant improvements of the mechanical properties: YS of 315 ± 11 MPa, UTS of 401 ± 11 MPa, and TE of 7.8 ± 1.1 %. Therefore, N2 might be considered to replace Ar as a cost-effective shielding gas for FeCrAl alloys, with improved properties.

本研究从熔池形状/大小、微观结构、沉淀物特征和机械性能等方面,探讨了气氛(Ar 和 N2)对使用激光粉末床熔化(L-PBF)制造的 Fe-12Cr-6Al 合金的影响。在 N2 气氛中制造的样品孔隙率较低,熔池较宽,没有 Al2O3 凝聚。氧含量从 0.012 降至 0.0045(重量百分比),氮含量从 0.013 增至 0.02(重量百分比)。氩印刷样品的屈服强度(YS)为 232 ± 15 兆帕(兆帕),极限拉伸强度(UTS)为 286 ± 10 兆帕(兆帕),总伸长率(TE)为 6.4 ± 1.3 %:YS 为 315 ± 11 MPa,UTS 为 401 ± 11 MPa,TE 为 7.8 ± 1.1 %。因此,可以考虑用 N2 替代 Ar,作为铁铬铝合金的一种经济有效的屏蔽气体,并改善其性能。
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引用次数: 0
Mitigation of gravity-induced distortions of binder-jetting components during rotational sintering 缓解旋转烧结过程中粘合剂喷射部件因重力引起的变形
Q2 ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURING Pub Date : 2024-04-26 DOI: 10.1016/j.addlet.2024.100215
Thomas Grippi , Elisa Torresani , Alberto Cabo Rios , Andrii L. Maximenko , Marco Zago , Ilaria Cristofolini , Alberto Molinari , Rajendra K. Bordia , Eugene A. Olevsky

Using theory and simulations, the challenge of gravity-induced distortions during sintering is addressed and a mitigation strategy is proposed. Based on the continuum theory of sintering, the finite element simulation demonstrates the advantages of a rotating furnace to counteract gravity forces during sintering. Its application for stainless steel hollow parts produced by additive manufacturing (binder jetting) is demonstrated, numerically, for reliable industrial production of complex shapes. Sintering a tube in a very slow rotating motion exhibits an improvement in the final deformation ratio compared to a conventional sintering process.

The same concept has been adapted for higher furnace revolution speeds and the centrifugal force is now surpassing the effects of gravity. An extended study of sintering under microgravity for space-borne applications is also widely depicted with the same model. Indeed, it shows the possibility of reproducing Earth's sintering conditions at places where gravity is insufficient to provide acceptable densification and shape conservation during sintering.

通过理论和模拟,解决了烧结过程中重力引起的变形这一难题,并提出了缓解策略。基于烧结连续体理论,有限元模拟展示了旋转炉在烧结过程中抵消重力的优势。通过数值模拟,证明了其在通过增材制造(粘合剂喷射)生产的不锈钢空心零件中的应用,从而实现了复杂形状的可靠工业生产。与传统烧结工艺相比,在极慢的旋转运动中烧结管材可提高最终变形率。同样的概念也适用于更高的熔炉旋转速度,目前离心力已超过重力作用。同样的模型还广泛应用于微重力条件下的烧结研究。事实上,在重力不足以在烧结过程中提供可接受的致密化和形状保持的地方,它显示了重现地球烧结条件的可能性。
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引用次数: 0
A novel feature engineering approach for predicting melt pool depth during LPBF by machine learning models 利用机器学习模型预测 LPBF 期间熔池深度的新型特征工程方法
Q2 ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURING Pub Date : 2024-04-26 DOI: 10.1016/j.addlet.2024.100214
Mohammad Hossein Mosallanejad , Hassan Gashmard , Mahdi Javanbakht , Behzad Niroumand , Abdollah Saboori

Melt pool geometry is a deterministic factor affecting the characteristics of metal Additive Manufacturing (AM) components. The wide array of physical and thermal phenomena involved during the formation of the AM melt pool, along with the great variety of alloy compositions and AM methods, coupled with the clear influence of multiple process parameters, make it difficult to predict the melt pool geometry under a given set of conditions. Therefore, using Artificial Intelligence (AI) approaches such as Machine Learning (ML) is necessary for accurate predictions. Using a physics-informed feature selection strategy along with the application of atomic features for the first time, this work aims to offer accurately trained models relying on existing high-fidelity data for most common alloys in AM academia and industry, i.e., 316 L stainless steel, Ti6Al4V, and AlSi10Mg. Multiple ML algorithms were trained, and the results revealed that the average R2 and RMSE obtained by the K-fold cross-validation (K = 5) were significantly enhanced when laser and material properties, inspired by the analytical models for AM melt pool geometry, were used as the model features. Removing the excess features and applying atomic features further enhanced the accuracy of the models. As a result, R2 for the XGBoost, CatBoost, and GPR models were 0.907, 0.889, and 0.882, respectively, while the hold-out cross-validation led to 0.978, 0.976, and 0.945, respectively. Furthermore, the results showed that the XGBoost model outperforms the Rosenthal equation. This approach provides a pathway to more accurately predict the properties of metal AM components.

熔池几何形状是影响金属增材制造 (AM) 部件特性的决定性因素。AM 熔池形成过程中涉及的各种物理和热现象,以及种类繁多的合金成分和 AM 方法,再加上多种工艺参数的明显影响,使得很难预测给定条件下的熔池几何形状。因此,有必要使用人工智能(AI)方法(如机器学习(ML))进行准确预测。这项工作首次使用了物理信息特征选择策略和原子特征应用,旨在根据现有的高保真数据,为 AM 学术界和工业界最常见的合金(即 316 L 不锈钢、Ti6Al4V 和 AlSi10Mg)提供经过精确训练的模型。训练了多种 ML 算法,结果表明,当使用受 AM 熔池几何形状分析模型启发的激光和材料属性作为模型特征时,通过 K 倍交叉验证(K = 5)获得的平均 R2 和 RMSE 显著提高。去除多余特征并应用原子特征进一步提高了模型的准确性。因此,XGBoost、CatBoost 和 GPR 模型的 R2 分别为 0.907、0.889 和 0.882,而保留交叉验证的结果分别为 0.978、0.976 和 0.945。此外,结果显示 XGBoost 模型优于罗森塔尔方程。这种方法为更准确地预测金属 AM 组件的性能提供了一条途径。
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引用次数: 0
Nanoscale Al precipitation in the Si phase in AlSi10Mg alloy during electron beam powder bed fusion 电子束粉末床熔融过程中 AlSi10Mg 合金硅相中的纳米级铝沉淀
Q2 ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURING Pub Date : 2024-04-26 DOI: 10.1016/j.addlet.2024.100213
Kenta Ishigami , Kenta Yamanaka , Kenta Aoyagi , Huakang Bian , Yoshiki Hashizume , Akiei Tanaka , Akihiko Chiba

Additive manufacturing of Al alloys has garnered attention in the aerospace and automobile industries. This is the first study on the formation of nanoscale Al precipitates in the Si phase of an AlSi10Mg alloy during electron beam powder bed fusion (EB-PBF). Spherical Si particles were homogeneously dispersed in the Al matrix, highlighting the difference from the laser beam PBF (LB-PBF) microstructures. Nanoscale Al phase was formed with a crystallographic orientation relationship with the surrounding Si phase: (111)Si//(111)Al and [11¯0]Si//[11¯0]Al. The formation of Al nanoprecipitates was attributed to an interplay between non-equilibrium solidification, wherein excess Al was dissolved in the Si particles, and the subsequent decomposition of the supersaturated Si phase during high-temperature exposure owing to the preheating procedure. To the best of our knowledge, such formation of Al nanoparticles has not been reported in AlSi10Mg produced through conventional processing or LB-PBF. Thus, the unique thermal history of EB-PBF provides novel opportunities for microstructural evolution, which may be beneficial for the development of novel Al-based alloys.

铝合金的增材制造在航空航天和汽车行业备受关注。这是首次研究在电子束粉末床熔融(EB-PBF)过程中在 AlSi10Mg 合金的硅相中形成纳米级 Al 沉淀。球形硅颗粒均匀地分散在铝基体中,凸显了与激光束粉末床熔化(LB-PBF)微结构的不同之处。形成的纳米级铝相与周围的硅相具有结晶取向关系:(111)Si//(111)Al 和 [11¯0]Si//[11¯0]Al 。铝纳米沉淀物的形成归因于非平衡凝固(过量的铝溶解在硅颗粒中)和预热程序导致的过饱和硅相在高温暴露期间的后续分解之间的相互作用。据我们所知,在通过传统加工或 LB-PBF 生产的 AlSi10Mg 中,还没有关于铝纳米颗粒形成的报道。因此,EB-PBF 独特的热历史为微观结构演变提供了新的机会,这可能有利于新型铝基合金的开发。
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引用次数: 0
Towards microwave volumetric additive manufacturing: Generation of a computational multi-physics model for localized curing 实现微波体积增材制造:生成局部固化的多物理场计算模型
Q2 ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURING Pub Date : 2024-04-24 DOI: 10.1016/j.addlet.2024.100209
Saptarshi Mukherjee, Johanna Schwartz, Emeraldo Baluyot, Tammy Chang, Joseph W. Tringe, Christopher M. Spadaccini, Maxim Shusteff

Visible light-based volumetric additive manufacturing (VAM) technology has recently enabled rapid 3D printing of optically transparent resins in a single step. There is now strong interest in extending the design space of VAM to include opaque, scattering and composite materials. Microwave energy can penetrate more deeply than visible light into a broader family of materials. For microwaves to be useful for VAM, however it is necessary to have a fundamental understanding of material dielectric properties, microwave field propagation and localization. Here we present a multi-physics microwave beam formed-thermal diffusion model that addresses these needs. The model demonstrates its ability to optimize power delivery and curing time to obtain better thermal control. We validate the model with a proof-of-concept single-antenna experimental system operating at 10 GHz that is able to cure a wide variety of materials, including both optically translucent and opaque epoxy resins loaded with conductive additives with a minimum curing spot of 5 mm. While available microwave hardware operating at 40 Watt power cures the resins in 2.5 min, the model estimates the ability to cure in as less as 6 s at 1 Kilowatt power levels. This computational model and experiments lay the foundation for a future multi-waveguide microwave-based VAM system.

基于可见光的体积增材制造(VAM)技术最近实现了光学透明树脂的单步快速三维打印。现在,人们对扩展 VAM 的设计空间以包括不透明、散射和复合材料产生了浓厚的兴趣。与可见光相比,微波能更深入地穿透更多材料。然而,要使微波在 VAM 中发挥作用,就必须从根本上了解材料的介电特性、微波场传播和定位。在此,我们提出了一个多物理场微波束成热扩散模型,以满足这些需求。该模型展示了其优化功率传输和固化时间以获得更好热控制的能力。我们用一个概念验证型单天线实验系统对该模型进行了验证,该系统工作频率为 10 GHz,能够固化多种材料,包括装有导电添加剂的光学半透明和不透明环氧树脂,固化点最小为 5 毫米。现有的微波硬件在 40 瓦功率下固化树脂的时间为 2.5 分钟,而根据模型估计,在 1 千瓦功率下,固化时间可缩短至 6 秒。该计算模型和实验为未来基于多波导微波的 VAM 系统奠定了基础。
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引用次数: 0
Additive manufacturing of NiTi architected metamaterials 镍钛结构超材料的快速成型制造
Q2 ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURING Pub Date : 2024-04-23 DOI: 10.1016/j.addlet.2024.100216
C.A. Biffi , C. Soyarslan , J. Fiocchi , C. Bregoli , A. du Plessis , A. Tuissi , M. Mehrpouya

Additive manufacturing has revolutionized the creation of complex and intrinsic structures, offering tailored designs for enhanced product performance across various applications. Architected cellular or lattice structures exemplify this innovation, customizable for specific mechanical or functional requirements, boasting advantages such as reduced mass, heightened load-bearing capabilities, and superior energy absorption. Nonetheless, their single-use limitation arises from plastic deformation resulting from localized yield damage or plastic buckling. Incorporating NiTi shape memory alloys (SMAs) presents a solution, enabling structures to recover their original shape post-unloading. In this study, an NiTi architected metastructure, featuring auxetic behavior and a negative Poisson's ratio, was designed and fabricated via laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). The samples exhibit promising superelastic performance with recoverable deformation strains at room temperature. Comprehensive characterization processes evaluated the functional performance of the fabricated metastructures. The metastructure geometry promoted microstructure formation primarily along the wall thickness. Cycling compression tests, conducted at three applied force levels, demonstrated stable cyclic behavior with up to 3.8 % reversible deformation strain, devoid of plastic buckling or yielding damage. Furthermore, the NiTi metastructures displayed robust energy absorption capacity and damping behavior, underscoring their potential for reusable energy dissipators in various industries including aerospace, automotive, construction, and etc.

快速成型制造技术彻底改变了复杂和固有结构的制造,为各种应用提供了量身定制的设计,从而提高了产品性能。建筑蜂窝或晶格结构就是这种创新的典型代表,可根据特定的机械或功能要求进行定制,具有质量小、承重能力强和能量吸收能力强等优点。然而,由于局部屈服损伤或塑性屈曲导致的塑性变形,它们的一次性使用受到了限制。掺入镍钛形状记忆合金(SMA)是一种解决方案,可使结构在卸载后恢复原有形状。本研究通过激光粉末床熔融(LPBF)技术,设计并制造了一种镍钛拱形结构,该结构具有辅助行为和负泊松比。样品在室温下具有可恢复的变形应变,表现出良好的超弹性性能。综合表征过程评估了所制造的转移结构的功能性能。新结构的几何形状主要沿着壁厚促进了微结构的形成。在三个施加力水平下进行的循环压缩测试表明,循环行为稳定,可逆变形应变高达 3.8%,没有塑性屈曲或屈服损伤。此外,镍钛偏析结构还显示出强大的能量吸收能力和阻尼特性,突出了其在航空航天、汽车、建筑等各行业中作为可重复使用的能量耗散器的潜力。
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引用次数: 0
Optimizing LPBF-parameters by Box-Behnken design for printing crack-free and dense high-boron alloyed stainless steel parts 通过盒式贝肯设计优化 LPBF 参数,用于打印无裂纹、致密的高硼合金不锈钢零件
Q2 ENGINEERING, MANUFACTURING Pub Date : 2024-04-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.addlet.2024.100206
Brenda Juliet Martins Freitas , Guilherme Yuuki Koga , Siegfried Arneitz , Claudemiro Bolfarini , Sergio de Traglia Amancio-Filho

Boron has almost null solubility in iron, and its addition to stainless steels leads to the formation of hard borides, beneficial for increasing the wear resistance. However, these boron-containing steels have poor printability, with the occurrence of pronounced cracking, high porosity and risk of delamination. In this work, Box-Behnken design coupled with analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to optimize the LPBF (Laser Powder Bed Fusion) processing parameters of a highly boron-alloyed stainless steel reinforced with a boride network. The proposed models demonstrated to be accurate in determine the porosity percentage for the studied alloys, in which the laser power and scanning speed play the main role in the alloys’ densification, and absence of extensive defects. These results indicate that the use of design of experiments tools is essential to produce defect-free boron-modified stainless steel specimens with a relatively low number of experiments, identifying a narrow optimized processing window to build bulk composite materials.

硼在铁中的溶解度几乎为零,在不锈钢中加入硼会形成硬硼化物,有利于提高耐磨性。然而,这些含硼钢的印刷适性较差,会出现明显的裂纹、高孔隙率和分层风险。在这项工作中,采用方框-贝肯设计和方差分析(ANOVA)来优化用硼化物网络强化的高硼合金不锈钢的 LPBF(激光粉末床熔融)加工参数。结果表明,所提出的模型可以准确地确定所研究合金的孔隙率,其中激光功率和扫描速度对合金的致密化和无广泛缺陷起着主要作用。这些结果表明,使用实验设计工具对于以相对较少的实验次数制作无缺陷的硼改性不锈钢试样至关重要,同时还能确定制造块状复合材料的窄优化加工窗口。
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引用次数: 0
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Additive manufacturing letters
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