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Beyond Nature Versus Nurture: the Emergence of Emotion 超越自然与培育:情感的产生。
Q2 PSYCHOLOGY Pub Date : 2023-08-30 DOI: 10.1007/s42761-023-00212-2
Adrienne Wood, James A. Coan

Affective science is stuck in a version of the nature-versus-nurture debate, with theorists arguing whether emotions are evolved adaptations or psychological constructions. We do not see these as mutually exclusive options. Many adaptive behaviors that humans have evolved to be good at, such as walking, emerge during development – not according to a genetically dictated program, but through interactions between the affordances of the body, brain, and environment. We suggest emotions are the same. As developing humans acquire increasingly complex goals and learn optimal strategies for pursuing those goals, they are inevitably pulled to particular brain-body-behavior states that maximize outcomes and self-reinforce via positive feedback loops. We call these recurring, self-organized states emotions. Emotions display many of the hallmark features of self-organized attractor states, such as hysteresis (prior events influence the current state), degeneracy (many configurations of the underlying variables can produce the same global state), and stability. Because most bodily, neural, and environmental affordances are shared by all humans – we all have cardiovascular systems, cerebral cortices, and caregivers who raised us – similar emotion states emerge in all of us. This perspective helps reconcile ideas that, at first glance, seem contradictory, such as emotion universality and neural degeneracy.

情感科学陷入了天生与后天的争论,理论家们争论情绪是进化的适应还是心理结构。我们不认为这些是相互排斥的选择。人类进化出的许多适应性行为,如行走,都是在发育过程中出现的——不是根据基因决定的程序,而是通过身体、大脑和环境的可供性之间的相互作用。我们认为情绪是一样的。随着发育中的人类获得越来越复杂的目标并学习追求这些目标的最佳策略,他们不可避免地会被拉到特定的大脑-身体行为状态,从而通过正反馈回路最大限度地提高结果和自我强化。我们把这些反复出现的、自我组织的状态称为情绪。情绪显示了自组织吸引子状态的许多标志性特征,如滞后(先前事件影响当前状态)、退化(潜在变量的许多配置可以产生相同的全局状态)和稳定性。因为大多数身体、神经和环境的可供性是所有人类共同的——我们都有心血管系统、大脑皮层和养育我们的照顾者——我们所有人都会出现类似的情绪状态。这种观点有助于调和乍一看似乎矛盾的想法,如情绪普遍性和神经退化。
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引用次数: 1
Synergistic Opportunities for Affective Science and Behavior Change 情感科学与行为改变的协同机遇。
Q2 PSYCHOLOGY Pub Date : 2023-08-30 DOI: 10.1007/s42761-023-00216-y
Rebecca A. Ferrer, Arielle S. Gillman

Behavior change can be challenging to facilitate and achieve. Behavior change frameworks largely focus on social cognitive determinants, omitting affective determinants or including them in a superficial way. However, evidence points to the role of affect in decision-making and behavior, particularly when the behavior at focus for change is affectively pleasant or when the behavior to be facilitated is affectively unpleasant. This paper identifies challenges and opportunities to further affective science by using behavior change as a context and, relatedly, to further the science of behavior change by leveraging theoretical and methodological innovations in affective science.

行为改变可能很难促进和实现。行为改变框架主要关注社会认知决定因素,忽略了情感决定因素或以肤浅的方式将其包括在内。然而,有证据表明,情感在决策和行为中的作用,特别是当关注变革的行为令人愉快时,或者当要促进的行为令人不愉快时。本文确定了通过将行为变化作为背景来推进情感科学的挑战和机遇,并通过利用情感科学的理论和方法创新来推进行为变化科学。
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引用次数: 2
Advancing Naturalistic Affective Science with Deep Learning 以深度学习推进自然主义情感科学。
Q2 PSYCHOLOGY Pub Date : 2023-08-25 DOI: 10.1007/s42761-023-00215-z
Chujun Lin, Landry S. Bulls, Lindsey J. Tepfer, Amisha D. Vyas, Mark A. Thornton

People express their own emotions and perceive others’ emotions via a variety of channels, including facial movements, body gestures, vocal prosody, and language. Studying these channels of affective behavior offers insight into both the experience and perception of emotion. Prior research has predominantly focused on studying individual channels of affective behavior in isolation using tightly controlled, non-naturalistic experiments. This approach limits our understanding of emotion in more naturalistic contexts where different channels of information tend to interact. Traditional methods struggle to address this limitation: manually annotating behavior is time-consuming, making it infeasible to do at large scale; manually selecting and manipulating stimuli based on hypotheses may neglect unanticipated features, potentially generating biased conclusions; and common linear modeling approaches cannot fully capture the complex, nonlinear, and interactive nature of real-life affective processes. In this methodology review, we describe how deep learning can be applied to address these challenges to advance a more naturalistic affective science. First, we describe current practices in affective research and explain why existing methods face challenges in revealing a more naturalistic understanding of emotion. Second, we introduce deep learning approaches and explain how they can be applied to tackle three main challenges: quantifying naturalistic behaviors, selecting and manipulating naturalistic stimuli, and modeling naturalistic affective processes. Finally, we describe the limitations of these deep learning methods, and how these limitations might be avoided or mitigated. By detailing the promise and the peril of deep learning, this review aims to pave the way for a more naturalistic affective science.

人们通过各种渠道表达自己的情绪和感知他人的情绪,包括面部动作、肢体姿势、声乐韵律和语言。研究情感行为的这些渠道可以洞察情感的体验和感知。先前的研究主要集中在使用严格控制的非自然主义实验来研究孤立状态下情感行为的个体渠道。这种方法限制了我们在更自然的环境中对情绪的理解,在这种环境中,不同的信息渠道往往会相互作用。传统的方法很难解决这一限制:手动注释行为很耗时,不可能大规模进行;基于假设手动选择和操纵刺激可能会忽略意想不到的特征,从而可能产生有偏见的结论;而常见的线性建模方法无法完全捕捉现实情感过程的复杂、非线性和互动性质。在这篇方法论综述中,我们描述了如何应用深度学习来应对这些挑战,以推进更自然的情感科学。首先,我们描述了情感研究的当前实践,并解释了为什么现有的方法在揭示更自然的情感理解方面面临挑战。其次,我们介绍了深度学习方法,并解释了如何将其应用于应对三个主要挑战:量化自然主义行为、选择和操纵自然主义刺激以及建模自然主义情感过程。最后,我们描述了这些深度学习方法的局限性,以及如何避免或减轻这些局限性。通过详细说明深度学习的前景和危险,这篇综述旨在为更自然的情感科学铺平道路。
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引用次数: 2
Facial Regulation During Dyadic Interaction: Interpersonal Effects on Cooperation Dyadic互动过程中的面部调节:人际合作的影响。
Q2 PSYCHOLOGY Pub Date : 2023-08-23 DOI: 10.1007/s42761-023-00208-y
Danielle Shore, Olly Robertson, Ginette Lafit, Brian Parkinson

This study investigated interpersonal effects of regulating naturalistic facial signals on cooperation during an iterative Prisoner’s Dilemma (IPD) game. Fifty pairs of participants played ten IPD rounds across a video link then reported on their own and their partner’s expressed emotion and facial regulation in a video-cued recall (VCR) procedure. iMotions software allowed us to auto-code actors’ and partners’ facial activity following the outcome of each round. We used two-level mixed effects logistic regression to assess over-time actor and partner effects of auto-coded facial activity, self-reported facial regulation, and perceptions of the partner’s facial regulation on the actor’s subsequent cooperation. Actors were significantly less likely to cooperate when their partners had defected on the previous round. None of the lagged scores based on auto-coded facial activity were significant predictors of cooperation. However, VCR variables representing partner’s positive regulation of expressions and actor’s perception of partner’s positive regulation both significantly increased the probability of subsequent actor cooperation after controlling for prior defection. These results offer preliminary evidence about interpersonal effects of facial regulation in interactive contexts and illustrate how dynamic dyadic emotional processes can be systematically investigated in controlled settings.

本研究调查了在迭代囚犯困境(IPD)游戏中,调节自然面部信号对合作的人际影响。50对参与者通过视频链接进行了10轮IPD,然后在视频提示回忆(VCR)程序中报告他们自己和伴侣表达的情绪和面部调节。iMotions软件允许我们根据每一轮的结果自动编码演员和合作伙伴的面部活动。我们使用两级混合效应逻辑回归来评估随着时间的推移,演员和伴侣对自动编码的面部活动、自我报告的面部调节以及对伴侣面部调节的感知对演员后续合作的影响。当他们的搭档在上一轮叛逃时,演员们合作的可能性明显降低。基于自动编码面部活动的滞后评分都不是合作的重要预测因素。然而,代表伴侣对表达的正向调节的VCR变量和演员对伴侣正向调节的感知都显著增加了在控制了先前的叛逃后,后续演员合作的概率。这些结果为互动环境中面部调节的人际影响提供了初步证据,并说明了如何在受控环境中系统地研究动态二元情感过程。补充信息:在线版本包含补充材料,请访问10.1007/s42761-023-00208-y。
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引用次数: 1
Shared Hearts and Minds: Physiological Synchrony During Empathy 心心相印:移情过程中的生理同步
IF 2.1 Q2 PSYCHOLOGY Pub Date : 2023-08-21 DOI: 10.1007/s42761-023-00210-4
Jaweria Qaiser, Nathan D. Leonhardt, Bonnie M. Le, Amie M. Gordon, Emily A. Impett, Jennifer E. Stellar

Empathy is a multidimensional construct that includes changes in cognitive, affective, and physiological processes. However, the physiological processes that contribute to empathic responding have received far less empirical attention. Here, we investigated whether physiological synchrony emerged during an empathy-inducing activity in which individuals disclosed a time of suffering while their romantic partner listened and responded (N = 111 couples). Further, we examined the extent to which trait and state measures of cognitive and affective empathy were associated with each other and with physiological synchrony during this activity. We found evidence for physiological synchrony in skin conductance reactivity and also in interbeat interval reactivity, though only when disclosers were women, but not for respiratory sinus arrhythmia reactivity. Physiological synchrony was not consistently associated with other well-established trait and state measures of empathy. These findings identify the nuanced role of physiological synchrony in empathic responding to others’ suffering.

移情是一个多维的概念,包括认知、情感和生理过程的变化。然而,有助于共情反应的生理过程却很少受到实证研究的关注。在这里,我们研究了在共情诱导活动中是否会出现生理同步,在该活动中,个体会披露一段痛苦的时光,而他们的恋爱伴侣会倾听并做出回应(N = 111 对情侣)。此外,我们还研究了认知共情和情感共情的特质和状态测量值在多大程度上相互关联,以及在这一活动中生理同步性的关联。我们发现了皮肤电导反应性和心跳间期反应性的生理同步性证据,尽管只有当披露者是女性时才会出现这种情况,但呼吸窦性心律失常反应性却没有这种证据。生理同步性与其他已确立的共情特质和状态测量并不一致。这些发现确定了生理同步性在对他人痛苦的共情反应中所起的微妙作用。
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引用次数: 0
A Case for Neutrality: Why Neutral Affect is Critical for Advancing Affective Science 中性案例:为什么中性情感对推进情感科学至关重要。
Q2 PSYCHOLOGY Pub Date : 2023-08-21 DOI: 10.1007/s42761-023-00214-0
Karen Gasper

For affective science to advance, researchers will need to develop a better understanding of neutral affect. At first glance, neutral affect may seem uninteresting to some affective scientists because the goal is to investigate hedonic experiences, not the presumed absence of them. This failure to fully consider and examine neutral affect, however, limits the field’s potential for new discoveries. In this paper, I discuss how a greater understanding of neutral affect can inform researchers’ views of valence, subjective well-being, and behavior. I define neutral affect and discuss evidence indicating that neutral affect is a commonly felt state that occurs independently of positive and negative affect. These data suggest that to understand the entirety of the affective landscape, researchers should move beyond traditional measures of valence and consider how positive, negative, and neutral affective states might inform their phenomenon of interest. I then illustrate how neutral affect might be a key, albeit complex, influence on subjective well-being. I also discuss how neutrality might be a fundamental and unique predictor of inaction. If affective scientists want to fully understand how feelings operate and function, it is essential that they explore the possibility that neutral affect might hold some of the essential clues needed to solve their affective puzzle.

为了推动情感科学的发展,研究人员需要更好地理解中性情感。乍一看,中性情感对一些情感科学家来说可能不感兴趣,因为其目的是研究享乐体验,而不是假设没有享乐体验。然而,未能充分考虑和研究中性影响,限制了该领域新发现的潜力。在这篇论文中,我讨论了如何更好地理解中性情感,从而为研究人员对效价、主观幸福感和行为的看法提供信息。我定义了中性情感,并讨论了表明中性情感是一种普遍感觉到的状态,独立于积极和消极情感发生的证据。这些数据表明,为了理解整个情感景观,研究人员应该超越传统的效价测量,考虑积极、消极和中性的情感状态如何影响他们感兴趣的现象。然后,我阐述了中性情感是如何对主观幸福感产生关键影响的,尽管这种影响很复杂。我还讨论了中立性如何成为不作为的一个基本而独特的预测因素。如果情感科学家想充分理解情感是如何运作和发挥作用的,那么他们必须探索中性情感可能包含解决情感难题所需的一些基本线索的可能性。
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引用次数: 1
These Aren’t The Droids You Are Looking for: Promises and Challenges for the Intersection of Affective Science and Robotics/AI 这些不是你正在寻找的机器人:情感科学与机器人/人工智能交叉的承诺和挑战。
Q2 PSYCHOLOGY Pub Date : 2023-08-18 DOI: 10.1007/s42761-023-00211-3
Arvid Kappas, Jonathan Gratch

AI research focused on interactions with humans, particularly in the form of robots or virtual agents, has expanded in the last two decades to include concepts related to affective processes. Affective computing is an emerging field that deals with issues such as how the diagnosis of affective states of users can be used to improve such interactions, also with a view to demonstrate affective behavior towards the user. This type of research often is based on two beliefs: (1) artificial emotional intelligence will improve human computer interaction (or more specifically human robot interaction), and (2) we understand the role of affective behavior in human interaction sufficiently to tell artificial systems what to do. However, within affective science the focus of research is often to test a particular assumption, such as “smiles affect liking.” Such focus does not provide the information necessary to synthesize affective behavior in long dynamic and real-time interactions. In consequence, theories do not play a large role in the development of artificial affective systems by engineers, but self-learning systems develop their behavior out of large corpora of recorded interactions. The status quo is characterized by measurement issues, theoretical lacunae regarding prevalence and functions of affective behavior in interaction, and underpowered studies that cannot provide the solid empirical foundation for further theoretical developments. This contribution will highlight some of these challenges and point towards next steps to create a rapprochement between engineers and affective scientists with a view to improving theory and solid applications.

人工智能研究专注于与人类的互动,特别是以机器人或虚拟代理的形式,在过去二十年中已经扩展到包括与情感过程相关的概念。情感计算是一个新兴的领域,它处理的问题包括如何使用对用户情感状态的诊断来改善这种互动,以及如何展示对用户的情感行为。这类研究通常基于两个信念:(1)人工情感智能将改善人机交互(或更具体地说,人机交互),以及(2)我们充分理解情感行为在人类交互中的作用,从而告诉人工系统该做什么。然而,在情感科学中,研究的重点往往是检验一个特定的假设,比如“微笑影响喜欢”。这种关注并不能提供在长时间的动态和实时互动中综合情感行为所需的信息。因此,理论在工程师开发人工情感系统的过程中并没有发挥很大作用,但自学习系统是在大量记录互动的语料库中发展其行为的。现状的特点是测量问题,关于情感行为在互动中的普遍性和功能的理论空白,以及研究力量不足,无法为进一步的理论发展提供坚实的经验基础。这一贡献将突出其中的一些挑战,并为工程师和情感科学家之间的和解指明下一步行动,以改进理论和坚实的应用。
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引用次数: 2
Yucatec Maya Children’s Responding to Emotional Challenge 尤卡泰克玛雅儿童应对情感挑战
IF 2.1 Q2 PSYCHOLOGY Pub Date : 2023-08-14 DOI: 10.1007/s42761-023-00205-1
Shannon M. Brady, Laura A. Shneidman, Cornelio Azarias Chay Cano, Elizabeth L. Davis

While the field of affective science has seen increased interest in and representation of the role of culture in emotion, prior research has disproportionately centered on Western, English-speaking, industrialized, and/or economically developed nations. We investigated the extent to which emotional experiences and responding may be shaped by cultural display rule understanding among Yucatec Maya children, an indigenous population residing in small-scale communities in remote areas of Mexico’s Yucatan peninsula. Data were collected from forty-two 6- and 10-year-old Yucatec children who completed a resting baseline and a structured disappointing gift task. Children were asked about whether specific emotions are better to show or to hide from others and self-reported the intensity of their discrete positive and negative emotional experiences. We observed and coded expressive positive and negative affective behavior during and after the disappointing gift task, and continuously acquired physiological measures of autonomic nervous system function. These multi-method indices of emotional responding enable us to provide a nuanced description of children’s observable and unobservable affective experiences. Results generally indicated that children’s understanding of and adherence to cultural display rules (i.e., to suppress negative emotions but openly show positive ones) was evidenced across indices of emotion, as predicted. The current study is a step toward the future of affective science, which lies in the pursuit of more diverse and equitable representation in study samples, increased use of concurrent multimethod approaches to studying emotion, and increased exploration of how emotional processes develop.

虽然情感科学领域对文化在情感中的作用越来越感兴趣,也有越来越多的研究表明文化在情感中的作用,但之前的研究主要集中在西方国家、英语国家、工业化国家和/或经济发达国家。尤卡坦玛雅儿童是居住在墨西哥尤卡坦半岛偏远地区小规模社区的土著居民。我们收集了 42 名 6 岁和 10 岁尤卡泰克儿童的数据,他们分别完成了静态基线和结构化失望礼物任务。孩子们被问及特定的情绪是表现出来好还是隐藏起来好,并自我报告了他们离散的积极和消极情绪体验的强度。我们观察了孩子们在完成失望礼物任务期间和之后的积极和消极情绪表达行为,并对其进行了编码,同时还持续采集了自律神经系统功能的生理指标。这些多方法的情绪反应指标使我们能够对儿童可观察和不可观察的情绪体验进行细致入微的描述。研究结果普遍表明,正如所预测的那样,儿童对文化展示规则(即压抑负面情绪但公开展示正面情绪)的理解和遵守体现在各种情绪指数上。当前的研究是朝着情感科学的未来迈出的一步,情感科学的未来在于追求研究样本更多样化和更公平的代表性,更多地使用并行的多方法研究情感,以及更多地探索情感过程是如何发展的。
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引用次数: 0
Embedding Research on Emotion Duration in a Network Model 网络模型中情绪持续时间的嵌入研究。
Q2 PSYCHOLOGY Pub Date : 2023-08-12 DOI: 10.1007/s42761-023-00203-3
Jens Lange

Contrary to early theorizing, emotions often last for longer periods of time. Variability in people’s emotion duration contributes to psychopathologies. Therefore, emotion theories need to account for this variability. So far, reviews only list predictors of emotion duration without integrating them in a theoretical framework. Mechanisms explaining why these predictors relate to emotion duration remain unknown. I propose to embed research on emotion duration in a network model of emotions and illustrate the central ideas with simulations using a formal network model. In the network model, the components of an emotion have direct causal effects on each other. According to the model, emotions last longer (a) when the components are more strongly connected or (b) when the components have higher thresholds (i.e., they are more easily activated). High connectivity prolongs emotions because components are constantly reactivated. Higher thresholds prolong emotions because components are more easily reactivated even when connectivity is lower. Indirect evidence from research on emotion coherence and research on the relationship of predictors of emotion duration with components outside of emotional episodes supports the usefulness of the network model. I further argue and show in simulations that a common cause model, in which a latent emotion causes changes in emotion components, cannot account for research on emotion duration. Finally, I describe future directions for research on emotion duration and emotion dynamics from a network perspective.

与早期的理论相反,情绪往往会持续更长的时间。人们情绪持续时间的可变性导致了精神病理学。因此,情绪理论需要解释这种可变性。到目前为止,综述只列出了情绪持续时间的预测因素,而没有将其整合到理论框架中。解释为什么这些预测因素与情绪持续时间有关的机制仍然未知。我建议将对情绪持续时间的研究嵌入情绪的网络模型中,并使用正式的网络模型通过模拟来说明中心思想。在网络模型中,情绪的组成部分相互之间有直接的因果关系。根据该模型,情绪持续时间更长(a)当组件连接更紧密时,或(b)当组件具有更高的阈值时(即,它们更容易被激活)。高度连接会延长情绪,因为组件不断被重新激活。更高的阈值会延长情绪,因为即使连接较低,组件也更容易被重新激活。来自情绪连贯性研究和情绪持续时间预测因子与情绪事件外成分关系研究的间接证据支持网络模型的有用性。我进一步论证并在模拟中表明,潜在情绪导致情绪成分变化的共同原因模型无法解释情绪持续时间的研究。最后,我从网络的角度描述了情绪持续时间和情绪动力学的未来研究方向。补充信息:在线版本包含补充材料,可访问10.1007/s42761-023-00203-3。
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引用次数: 1
Sharing Positive Affective States Amongst Rodents 啮齿动物之间分享积极的情感状态。
Q2 PSYCHOLOGY Pub Date : 2023-08-12 DOI: 10.1007/s42761-023-00201-5
Frédéric Michon, Julian Packheiser, Valeria Gazzola, Christian Keysers

Group living is thought to benefit from the ability to empathize with others. Much attention has been paid to empathy for the pain of others as an inhibitor of aggression. Empathizing with the positive affect of others has received less attention although it could promote helping by making it vicariously rewarding. Here, we review this latter, nascent literature to show that three components of the ability to empathize with positive emotions are already present in rodents, namely, the ability to perceive, share, and prefer actions that promote positive emotional states of conspecifics. While it has often been argued that empathy evolved as a motivation to care for others, we argue that these tendencies may have selfish benefits that could have stabilized their evolution: approaching others in a positive state can provide information about the source of valuable resources; becoming calmer and optimistic around animals in a calm or positive mood can help adapt to the socially sensed safety level in the environment; and preferring actions also benefiting others can optimize foraging, reduce aggression, and trigger reciprocity. Together, these findings illustrate an emerging field shedding light on the emotional world of rodents and on the biology and evolution of our ability to cooperate in groups.

集体生活被认为受益于与他人共情的能力。人们非常关注对他人痛苦的同情,因为它是攻击的抑制剂。同情他人的积极影响得到的关注较少,尽管它可以通过间接的回报来促进帮助。在这里,我们回顾了后一种新兴的文献,以表明啮齿动物对积极情绪产生同理心的能力的三个组成部分已经存在,即感知、分享和偏好促进同种动物积极情绪状态的行为的能力。虽然人们经常认为移情是一种照顾他人的动机,但我们认为,这些倾向可能有自私的好处,可以稳定他们的进化:以积极的状态接近他人可以提供有关宝贵资源来源的信息;在动物周围以平静或积极的情绪变得更冷静和乐观,有助于适应社会感知的环境安全水平;偏好行为也有利于他人,可以优化觅食,减少攻击性,并引发互惠。这些发现共同说明了一个新兴的领域,揭示了啮齿动物的情感世界,以及我们群体合作能力的生物学和进化。
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引用次数: 1
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Affective science
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