Behavioural Processes最新文献_第5页

A computational perspective on rapid reacquisition: Phenotype-specific effects of reinforcement history 快速再获取的计算视角：强化历史的表型特异性效应。

IF 1.5 4区生物学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Behavioural Processes

Pub Date : 2025-09-26 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2025.105278

John Michael Falligant , Shane H. Phillips , Michael P. Kranak , Bryan Klapes

Rapid reacquisition refers to the recurrence of a previously eliminated behavior following the response-dependent reintroduction of the reinforcer that originally maintained it. Woods and Bouton (2007) demonstrated that rapid reacquisition was attenuated when behavior was decelerated using intermittent reinforcement rather than extinction—a finding attributed to the reduced discriminability of reinforcer reintroduction under intermittent schedules. The present study used artificial organisms (AOs) animated by the Evolutionary Theory of Behavior Dynamics (ETBD) to evaluate the extent to which rapid reacquisition and its mitigation can be captured within a computational framework. AOs with phenotypes characterized by a high sensitivity to environmental contingencies exhibited reduced reacquisition of the target response following intermittent reinforcement compared to extinction, replicating prior findings. In contrast, AOs with diminished sensitivity to environmental changes showed little difference in reacquisition across response elimination conditions; instead, their relapse was primarily driven by the density of reinforcement in the reacquisition challenge condition. These findings revealed that susceptibility to disruption varied systematically with mutation rate, offering a computational perspective on how reinforcement sensitivity modulates behavioral persistence. These findings suggest that the impact of reinforcement history on relapse is phenotype-dependent and potentially shaped by operant variability. This study is the first to demonstrate rapid reacquisition using the ETBD and provides a foundation for future theoretical and translational investigations of relapse and resistance to change.

快速再习得是指先前被消除的行为在最初维持它的强化因素的响应依赖性重新引入之后再次出现。Woods和Bouton（2007）证明，当使用间歇性强化而不是灭绝来减缓行为时，快速重新获取会减弱——这一发现归因于间歇性计划下强化物重新引入的可辨别性降低。本研究使用由行为动力学进化理论（ETBD）激活的人工生物（ao）来评估在计算框架内捕获快速再捕获及其缓解的程度。与灭绝相比，具有对环境偶然性高度敏感的表型的AOs在间歇性强化后表现出目标反应的重新获取减少，重复了先前的研究结果。与此相反，对环境变化敏感性降低的AOs在不同的响应消除条件下的再捕获差异不大；相反，他们的复发主要是由重新获得挑战条件下的强化密度驱动的。这些发现揭示了对破坏的易感性随突变率系统性地变化，为强化敏感性如何调节行为持久性提供了计算视角。这些发现表明，强化史对复发的影响是表型依赖的，并可能由操作变异性决定。这项研究首次证明了使用ETBD的快速再获取，并为未来复发和变化抵抗的理论和转化研究奠定了基础。

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引用次数: 0

Acoustic traits of male ultrasonic courtship song in a rodent with induced ovulation, the Harting’s vole (Microtus hartingi) 诱导排卵的雄性洪亭田鼠（Microtus hartingi）超声求偶声的声学特征。

IF 1.5 4区生物学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Behavioural Processes

Pub Date : 2025-09-25 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2025.105277

Ilya A. Volodin , Marina V. Rutovskaya , Fedor N. Golenishchev , Elena V. Volodina

Among rodents, male ultrasonic courtship songs were investigated regarding their acoustical structure only in laboratory mice (Mus musculus) and used as bioindicators for pharmacological research. This study describes the complex acoustic structure of male ultrasonic courtship songs of another rodent species, the Harting’s vole (Microtus hartingi), at the levels of phrases, syllables and notes. Male songs were recorded from 13 of 59 males paired for short-term with unfamiliar female on the neutral arena during sexual behaviour including copulations or attempts of copulations. We predicted that songs of males in trials with successful copulations will be more complex than in the trials including only attempts of copulations. Against prediction, the songs of males which only displayed attempts of copulations were more complex, with longer phrases, more numbers of syllables per phrase and with shorter intervals between syllables within phrases at the same number of notes per syllable. We propose that male vole ultrasonic songs associated with mating may provide stimuli for inducing ovulation in female voles. We discuss the similarities and differences of male songs of Harting's voles with literature data on male song in domestic mice, which produce fewer complex songs when courtship ended with ejaculations than when ejaculations did not occur.

在啮齿类动物中，仅在实验小鼠（小家鼠）中研究了雄性超声求偶鸣声的声学结构，并将其作为药理研究的生物指标。本研究描述了另一种啮齿类动物——浩亭田鼠（Microtus hartingi）的雄性超声波求偶声的复杂声学结构，包括短语、音节和音符。研究人员记录了59只与陌生雌鸟短期配对的雄鸟中的13只在中性舞台上进行性行为（包括交配或试图交配）时发出的雄性歌曲。我们预测，交配成功的雄性鸣叫将比只尝试交配的雄性鸣叫更为复杂。与预测相反的是，那些只显示交配企图的雄鸟的歌声更复杂，有更长的短语，每个短语的音节数更多，在每个音节的音符数相同的情况下，短语中音节之间的间隔更短。我们认为雄性田鼠与交配相关的超声波鸣声可能为雌性田鼠诱导排卵提供了刺激。我们用家鼠雄性鸣声的文献资料来讨论Hartings田鼠雄性鸣声的异同。家鼠在求偶期以射精结束时发出的复杂鸣声比没有射精时发出的复杂鸣声要少。

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引用次数: 0

Further exploration of delayed reinforcement effects on resurgence: A replication of Jarmolowicz & Lattal (2014) 延迟强化效应对复苏的进一步探索：Jarmolowicz & latal（2014）的复制。

IF 1.5 4区生物学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Behavioural Processes

Pub Date : 2025-09-25 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2025.105279

Carlos J. Flores, Julian C. Velasquez, A. Sofía Flores, Everardo E. Durán, Eduardo Meza, Carlos J. de Anda, L. Rebeca Mateos

Resurgence of a previously extinguished response often occurs when alternative conditions of reinforcement are worsened. Jarmolowicz and Lattal (2014) showed that delayed alternative reinforcement can induce resurgence, but it is unclear if the increase of response-reinforcer interval alone was responsible to such effect or other variables such as the decrease in reinforcement rate could have played a role. The present study aimed to replicate and extend the effect of delayed reinforcement on resurgence. The Replication group experienced increasing delays in alternative reinforcement schedules, while the Delay group experienced both increasing delays and richer frequencies of alternative reinforcement, ensuring that the reinforcement rate remained constant across sessions. Results showed more resurgence in the Replication group, suggesting that delay alone is not enough to produce resurgence.

当替代的强化条件恶化时，以前消失的反应往往会重新出现。Jarmolowicz和Lattal（2014）表明，延迟的替代强化可以诱发死死性，但目前尚不清楚是反应-强化间隔的增加本身导致了这种效果，还是其他变量（如强化率的降低）也起了作用。本研究旨在复制和扩展延迟强化对死灰复燃的影响。复制组在替代强化计划中经历了越来越多的延迟，而延迟组经历了越来越多的延迟和更丰富的替代强化频率，确保了强化率在整个会议中保持不变。结果显示，复制组有更多的死灰复燃，这表明仅仅延迟并不足以产生死灰复燃。

引用次数: 0

A cost-effective Raspberry Pi-based operant playback setup to evaluate auditory preferences in songbirds 一个经济高效的基于树莓派的操作回放设置来评估鸣禽的听觉偏好。

IF 1.5 4区生物学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Behavioural Processes

Pub Date : 2025-09-22 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2025.105276

Prateek K. Sahu , Alexandra D. Garcia , Katharine H. Stenstrom , Moriah J. Deimeke , Sarah M.L. Smeltz , Isaac J. Lank , Christopher B. Sturdy

Preferences arise from the interplay of biological processes, past experiences, and environmental factors that shape decision-making and adaptive behaviour. Song preference is integral to cognitive processes and song learning in songbirds. Traditionally, measuring song preferences in the lab has required expensive commercial equipment, limiting accessibility and adaptability. The past decade, however, has seen an increase in the development and use of low-cost DIY equipment that can be used for research. Here, we built a cost-effective operant audio playback system using a Raspberry Pi Zero 2 W. We validated the operant audio playback system using a conspecific-heterospecific song preference task with black-capped chickadees (Poecilia atricapillus). Our system allows the birds to self-select acoustic stimuli through perch-hopping while automatically recording their behaviour. Birds chose between conspecific black-capped chickadee fee-bee songs vs heterospecific white-throated sparrow songs. We did not find evidence that birds prefer conspecific (predicted probability 44 %, with 90 % CI [22 %–72 %]) over heterospecific songs from our limited sample size. Several factors may have contributed to this outcome, including the testing of wild-caught birds in a laboratory environment, the novelty or acoustic similarity of the stimuli, and potential habituation over time. Preference dynamics also varied across individuals, possibly reflecting differences in age or prior experiences. Nevertheless, birds readily engaged with the operant preference testing system, validating the setup and paving the way for a wide range of future research questions. The operant preference setup is made with affordable parts and open-source software, offering similar features to commercial systems but at a lower cost.

偏好产生于生物过程、过去经验和环境因素的相互作用，这些因素决定了决策和适应行为。鸣禽的鸣声偏好是认知过程和鸣声学习不可或缺的一部分。传统上，在实验室测量歌曲偏好需要昂贵的商业设备，限制了可访问性和适应性。然而，在过去的十年里，可以用于研究的低成本DIY设备的开发和使用有所增加。在这里，我们建立了一个具有成本效益的操作音频播放系统使用树莓派零2W。我们通过对黑冠山雀（Poecilia atricapillus）的同种异种歌曲偏好任务验证了操作性音频播放系统。我们的系统允许鸟类通过跳栖来自主选择声音刺激，同时自动记录它们的行为。鸟类在同种的黑冠山雀和异种的白喉麻雀之间进行选择。在我们有限的样本量中，我们没有发现鸟类更喜欢同种鸣声（预测概率为44%，置信区间为90%[22%-72%]）而不是异种鸣声的证据。可能有几个因素促成了这一结果，包括在实验室环境中对野生捕获的鸟类进行测试，刺激的新颖性或声学相似性，以及随着时间的推移潜在的习惯。个人的偏好动态也各不相同，这可能反映了年龄或先前经历的差异。然而，鸟类很容易参与操作性偏好测试系统，验证了该设置，并为未来广泛的研究问题铺平了道路。操作偏好设置由可负担的部件和开源软件组成，提供与商业系统相似的功能，但成本较低。

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引用次数: 0

Verbal segments and multiple-pair training in relational responding under a transposition paradigm in children 换位范式下儿童关系反应的语段和多对训练。

IF 1.5 4区生物学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Behavioural Processes

Pub Date : 2025-09-16 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2025.105275

Isiris Guzmán-Reyes , Iván Felipe Medina-Arboleda , Joao Santibáñez-Armenta , Alejandro León

Several studies have shown that the use of conventional or unconventional verbal segments (VS) can facilitate the presentation of transposition responses, even in distance tests. In those studies: A) the effect of limiting the use of VS during task resolution was not systematically evaluated; and B) only two stimuli were used during training, causing the VS to become redundant. Starting from the hypothesis that the consistency between the VS and the relational property of the stimuli could affect the functionality of the VS, the present study aimed to compare the functionality of three types of verbal segments: a) conventional-consistent (CC); b) unconventional-consistent (UC); and c) unconventional-inconsistent (UI), with 1 and 3 pairs of instances training, in a transposition task. Fifty-six children between 8 and 9 years of age participated. They were exposed to a computerized task with varying stimuli in the size dimension, as well as near and far tests. The findings of the present study suggest that: 1) CC verbal segments only became relevant, as facilitators, when more than one stimulus pair was presented in training; 2) the use of UI resulted in an interfering task that significantly limited relational responding under 3-instance-pair training; and 3) Regardless of the number of pairs of instances in training, participants trained with CCs obtained significantly higher percentages of correct answers in Test than those trained with UCs. The relevance of verbal segments and training variability to the establishment of transposition responses is discussed.

一些研究表明，即使在距离测试中，使用常规或非常规的语段（VS）也能促进换位反应的呈现。在这些研究中：A)在任务解决过程中限制VS使用的效果没有被系统地评估；B)在训练过程中只使用了两种刺激，导致VS变得冗余。本研究从假设语篇的一致性和刺激的关系属性会影响语篇的功能出发，比较了三种类型的语篇的功能：a)常规-一致（CC）；b)非常规一致性（UC）；c)在换位任务中，具有1对和3对实例训练的非常规不一致（UI）。56名年龄在8到9岁之间的儿童参与了这项研究。他们被暴露在一个计算机化的任务中，在大小维度上有不同的刺激，以及近距离和远距离的测试。本研究的结果表明：1)CC语段只有在训练中出现一个以上的刺激对时才会成为相关的促进因素；2) UI的使用导致了干扰任务，显著限制了3-实例对训练下的关系响应；(3)无论训练中实例对的数量如何，接受cc训练的参与者在测试中获得的正确答案百分比显著高于接受uc训练的参与者。本文讨论了语段和训练变异性与转位反应建立的相关性。

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引用次数: 0

Effects of pre-session feeding, an abolishing operation, on resurgence in rats 闭会前饲喂对大鼠死灰复燃的影响

IF 1.5 4区生物学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Behavioural Processes

Pub Date : 2025-09-11 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2025.105258

Amin D. Lotfizadeh , Julian C. Velasquez , Ryan Redner , Camilo Hurtado-Parrado , Carlos J. Flores , Alan Poling

An abolishing operation reduces the value of a particular kind of reinforcer (e.g., food) and the likelihood of occurrence of responses that historically produced such reinforcers. We examined in rats whether (a) arranging an abolishing operation, pre-session feeding, would produce resurgence when the alternative response continued to be reinforced and (b) whether this abolishing operation would affect resurgence produced by extinction. Rats were exposed to three sequential phases: (a) variable-interval 30-s food reinforcement for pressing a target lever press, with some sessions including 15 hrs of pre-session feeding; (b) variable-interval 30-s food reinforcement for an alternative lever press with extinction of the target response, also with some sessions of pre-session feeding; (c) extinction for both responses, with one group of rats receiving pre-session feeding before sessions. In Phases 1 and 2, pre-session feeding reduced response rates on the active lever. Pre-session feeding during Phase 2 did not increase target responding, indicating that our abolishing operation did not produce resurgence. In Phase 3, rats that were not pre-fed showed resurgence of the target response, whereas pre-fed rats did not, indicating that the abolishing operation mitigated resurgence. These findings are the first examining how changing motivation affects resurgence and we suggest that further research adding this topic is merited.

废除操作降低了特定强化物（例如，食物）的价值和历史上产生这种强化物的反应发生的可能性。我们在大鼠中研究了(a)当替代反应继续加强时，安排一个废除操作，即赛前喂养，是否会产生死灰复燃；(b)这种废除操作是否会影响灭绝产生的死灰复燃。大鼠暴露于三个连续阶段：(a)按目标杠杆按下30秒可变间隔食物强化，其中一些阶段包括15小时的预喂食；(b)可变间隔30秒的食物强化，替代杠杆按压，目标反应消失，也有一些时段的预喂食；(c)两种反应均消失，其中一组大鼠在训练前接受训练前喂养。在第一阶段和第二阶段，会前喂食降低了主动杠杆的反应率。第2阶段的会前喂养没有增加目标反应，表明我们的废除操作没有产生复苏。在第三阶段，未预喂的大鼠表现出靶反应的死灰复燃，而预喂的大鼠则没有，这表明废除操作减轻了死灰复燃。这些发现是第一次研究改变动机如何影响复苏，我们建议进一步研究增加这个主题是值得的。

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引用次数: 0

Midsession reversal learning performance in harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) 斑海豹（Phoca vitulina）课间翻转学习的表现。

IF 1.5 4区生物学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Behavioural Processes

Pub Date : 2025-09-02 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2025.105261

Caroline Spratte , Jan Quanter , Tamara Heinrich, Frederike D. Hanke

Reversal learning (RL) experiments explore cognitive flexibility and decision-making processes. Specifically, RL examines the extent and speed at which individuals adapt their choices when reward contingencies change after the point of reversal. One variation of RL is the midsession reversal learning experiment (MRL), in which the point of reversal occurs midway through a session. In order to solve an MRL task, individuals may employ a win-stay/loose-shift (WS/LS) strategy, changing the behaviour after experiencing a single error after the point of reversal, or utilize a switching cue such as the time elapsed since the onset of the session to solve an MRL task. In this study, we conducted a spatial MRL experiment with two harbour seals to answer the question of whether/how individual learning strategies and temporal information influence decision making and cognitive flexibility in harbour seals. The research underscores individual variations in strategies, which are likely rooted in the seals’ experimental pasts. One seal, Moe, with prior RL experience, demonstrated a WS/LS strategy illustrating the impact of feedback on behaviour. Conversely, Bill, naïve to RL tasks, showed anticipatory and perseverative errors close to the reversal point, hinting at the incorporation of temporal information into his decision-making process. Thus, our study showcases cognitive flexibility influenced by learning strategy and possibly temporal information. Although the use of strategies has already been speculated about in previous studies, we now present evidence that temporal information may prompt behavioural adjustments. In the harbour seals’ natural habitat, temporal aspects might inform decisions in foraging or orientation/navigation contexts, providing avenues for future research.

逆向学习（RL）实验探索认知灵活性和决策过程。具体来说，强化学习研究了当奖励偶然性在逆转后发生变化时，个体适应其选择的程度和速度。RL的一种变体是会话中间反转学习实验（MRL），其中反转点发生在会话中间。为了解决一个MRL任务，个体可以采用win-stay/lose-shift （WS/LS）策略，在反转点后经历一个错误后改变行为，或者利用一个切换线索，如自会话开始以来经过的时间来解决一个MRL任务。本研究以两只斑海豹为研究对象，通过空间核磁共振成像（MRL）实验，探讨个体学习策略和时间信息对斑海豹决策和认知灵活性的影响。这项研究强调了海豹在策略上的个体差异，这可能源于海豹过去的实验经历。其中一只名叫Moe的海豹有强化学习的经验，它展示了WS/LS策略，说明了反馈对行为的影响。相反，Bill （naïve）在RL任务中表现出接近反转点的预期性和持续性错误，暗示他的决策过程中包含了时间信息。因此，我们的研究表明认知灵活性受到学习策略和可能的时间信息的影响。虽然在以前的研究中已经推测了策略的使用，但我们现在提出的证据表明，时间信息可能会促使行为调整。在斑海豹的自然栖息地，时间因素可能会影响觅食或定向/导航环境的决定，为未来的研究提供途径。

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引用次数: 0

Corrigendum to “Evaluating indicators of intentionality, flexibility, and goal-association in domestic cat (Felis silvestris catus) facial signals” [Behav. Proc. 231, September 2025, 105244] “评估家猫（Felis silvestris catus）面部信号的意向性、灵活性和目标关联指标”的勘误表。[j].农业工程学报，2002,23(9):532 - 544。

IF 1.5 4区生物学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Behavioural Processes

Pub Date : 2025-09-01 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2025.105254

Samantha Dickey , Jayden Garrett , Lauren Scott , Robert W. Miller , Brittany N. Florkiewicz

引用次数: 0

Reading emotions in dog eyes and faces by Japanese observers: A replication and extension study of Burza et al (2022). 日本观察者解读狗的眼睛和面部情绪：Burza等人（2022）的复制和扩展研究。

IF 1.5 4区生物学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Behavioural Processes

Pub Date : 2025-09-01 Epub Date: 2025-08-05 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2025.105246

Aiko Murata, Yu-Lin Liu, Katsumi Watanabe

Previous studies conducted in the U.S. and Brazil have demonstrated that humans can recognize dog emotions from static images of canine eyes or full faces (Bloom et al., 2021; Burza et al., 2022). The present study aimed to replicate and extend these findings in a Japanese context, investigating whether the ability to interpret dog emotions generalizes across cultures. Japanese participants (N = 342) were shown photographs of three dog breeds previously used by Burza et al. (2022) and asked to presume the dog's emotional state. Results revealed that Japanese participants identified presumed dog emotions at levels significantly above chance, both when viewing full-face images and eye-only images. Accuracy was notably higher for full-face images, supporting the idea that broader facial context enhances accurate identification of emotion. Dog ownership had no effect on accuracy, and participants' ability to recognize human emotions did not predict their performance with dogs. This suggests that interpreting canine emotions may rely on distinct cognitive mechanisms. Whereas the overall findings replicate previous results from Western populations, some cross-cultural differences emerged in which specific emotions were most accurately identified. These differences underscore the cultural factors and perceptual biases in cross-species emotion interpretation. In sum, the study suggests that humans possess a moderate but consistent ability to interpret dog emotions from facial cues, and that this capacity, whereas partially universal, may be shaped by cultural context.

此前在美国和巴西进行的研究表明，人类可以从狗眼睛或全脸的静态图像中识别狗的情绪(Bloom et al., 2021；Burza et al., 2022)。本研究旨在在日本的背景下复制和扩展这些发现，调查解读狗的情绪的能力是否在不同文化中普遍存在。研究人员向日本参与者（N = 342）展示了Burza等人（2022）之前使用过的三种狗的照片，并要求他们猜测狗的情绪状态。结果显示，日本参与者在观看全脸照片和只看眼睛的照片时，识别出的狗的情绪水平明显高于偶然水平。全脸图像的准确率明显更高，这支持了更广泛的面部背景可以提高对情绪的准确识别的观点。养狗对准确性没有影响，参与者识别人类情绪的能力并不能预测他们与狗相处的表现。这表明，解释犬类情绪可能依赖于不同的认知机制。尽管总体上的发现重复了之前在西方人群中的结果，但一些跨文化差异出现了，在这些差异中，特定的情绪被最准确地识别出来。这些差异强调了跨物种情感解释中的文化因素和感知偏差。总而言之，这项研究表明，人类拥有一种适度但一致的能力，可以从面部线索解读狗的情绪，这种能力虽然部分是普遍的，但可能受到文化背景的影响。

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引用次数: 0

Kea (Nestor notabilis) and the ephemeral reward task: Success and hurdles explored. Kea （Nestor Notabilis）和短暂奖励任务：成功和障碍探索。

IF 1.5 4区生物学 Q4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Behavioural Processes

Pub Date : 2025-09-01 Epub Date: 2025-08-05 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2025.105243

Peter Seban, Ludwig Huber, Raoul Schwing

The ephemeral reward task (ERT), employed in animal cognition research, appears deceptively straightforward but seems to be counterintuitive for many lab animals. Our study explored the performance of kea (Nestor notabilis) on this task, in two different setups based on previously used methodologies: one with direct visible reward presentation, and one with non-visible rewards plus a spatial component. Additionally, we investigated their ability, using the same setups, to choose two pieces of reward as opposed to one in a basic quantity discrimination task (QDT), as this is the outcome of the ERT meant to motivate choosing optimally. The results showed that a greater proportion of kea successfully solved the ERT when the rewards were directly visible, compared to when they were non-visible. Likewise, in the QDT, the kea exhibited a preference for selecting two pieces of reward over one, with higher success rates observed in the setup with visible rewards. More kea solved the QDT than the ERT. However, not all subjects successfully solved the QDT within the standard 100 trials, and none did so spontaneously from the first session; suggesting that the presence of two outcomes alone is not the only hurdle for subjects to overcome.

在动物认知研究中使用的短暂奖励任务（ERT）看似简单，但对许多实验室动物来说似乎是违反直觉的。我们的研究探索了kea （Nestor notabilis）在此任务中的表现，基于先前使用的方法，在两种不同的设置中：一种是直接可见的奖励呈现，另一种是不可见的奖励加上空间成分。此外，我们调查了他们的能力，使用相同的设置，在基本数量辨别任务（QDT）中选择两个奖励，而不是一个奖励，因为这是ERT的结果，旨在激励最佳选择。结果表明，当奖励直接可见时，与不可见时相比，kea成功解决ERT的比例更大。同样，在QDT中，kea表现出对选择两种奖励的偏好，而不是一种奖励，在有可见奖励的设置中观察到更高的成功率。更多的人解决了QDT而不是ERT。然而，并不是所有的受试者都在标准的100次试验中成功地解决了QDT，而且没有人从第一次试验开始就自发地解决了QDT；这表明，仅仅存在两种结果并不是受试者需要克服的唯一障碍。

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引用次数: 0