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Sodium/potassium-ion batteries (SIBs/PIBs) are promising for large-scale energy storage due to their abundant resources and lithium-ion compatibility. However, their practical application depends on optimizing electrochemical performance, particularly rate capability and cycling stability; therefore, elucidating key mechanisms like electrode evolution, phase transitions, and ion transport is essential for realizing their potential. Traditional ex-situ techniques fail to capture real-time changes in operating batteries, often providing incomplete insights into mechanisms such as capacity degradation and interfacial instability. In-situ characterization overcomes this limitation by enabling direct observation of material dynamics, thereby advancing both fundamental research and practical development of SIBs/PIBs. A comprehensive review of these techniques is crucial to address the increasing demand for sustainable energy storage solutions. This review provides an overview of in-situ techniques, detailing their principles, operational methods, advantages and limitations. It underscores that understanding the principles alone is insufficient; precise interpretation of experimental results is essential for analyzing electrochemical processes. Through examples, we aim to elucidate battery reaction mechanisms and offer strategies for addressing complex electrochemical systems. This article focuses on diffraction- and spectroscopy-based methods (in-situ XRD, XAS, Raman and FTIR), electron microscopy (in-situ TEM, SEM) and in-situ AFM, highlighting their applications in SIBs/PIBs research and offering guidance for future studies.

Bisdemethoxycurcumin (BDMC) exhibits anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antitumor properties. Nonetheless, there is currently no published evidence regarding its efficacy in the management of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). Low solubility in water and reduced bioavailability of BDMC upon oral administration limit its application in the clinics. This study aimed to prepare D-α-tocopherol polyethylene glycol (PEG)-1000-succinate (TPGS)- and 1, 2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-ethanolamine (DSPE)-PEG-modified BDMC-loaded liposomes (BDMC-TPGS-DSPE-PEG-L) using the thin-film dispersion technique. Regarding formulation optimization, we employed single-factor experiments combined with Box-Behnken design (BBD). The physicochemical properties, in vitro release characteristics, and pharmacokinetic profiles of the prepared liposomes were systematically characterized. Furthermore, the anti-fibrotic activity of BDMC-TPGS-DSPE-PEG-L was evaluated in bleomycin (BLM)-induced A549 cells via MTT assay, senescence-associated β-galactosidase (SA-β-Gal) staining, and immunohistochemical analysis of Collagen-I. The optimal formulation showed favorable characteristics, namely particle size (PS), polydispersed index (PDI), zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency (EE%) and drug loading (DL) to be 232.36 ± 3.75 nm, 0.249 ± 0.016, -28.71 ± 0.976 mV, 95.98 ± 0.02%, and 6.84 ± 0.002%, respectively. The liposomal formulation significantly enhanced BDMC oral bioavailability by 1.6-fold compared to free BDMC. The results of the MTT assay confirmed that the cell inhibition rate of the liposome group decreased in a concentration-dependent manner, which was significantly lower compared to free drug group at the same concentration (P < 0.05). Moreover, microscopic observation showed that high-concentration liposome group significantly reduced senescence-associated β-galactosidase (SA-β-Gal) activity and type I collagen (Collagen-I) expression compared to free BDMC. Altogether, BDMC-liposomes could effectively improve the solubility and bioavailability of BDMC, thereby providing a novel therapeutic option for IPF.

Dendritic growth and parasitic reactions at the zinc (Zn) anode surface critically limit the performance and durability of aqueous zinc metal batteries (AZMBs). Therefore, a surface etching strategy using leucine was proposed to in-situ regulate the Zn anode interface. During etching, the Zn (101) crystal plane is selectively preserved, and its fast reaction kinetics promote uniform Zn plating. Meanwhile, a stable leucine-zinc interfacial layer is formed on the Zn surface, which increases the contact angle with water and significantly suppresses parasitic reactions, leading to 67.8 % reduction in corrosion. In addition, the leucine-zinc interface provides abundant adsorption-active sites that accelerate the desolvation of Zn(H₂O)₆²⁺, thereby effectively inhibiting dendritic growth, with dendrite height reduced over 50 % compared with Bare Zn. Theoretical calculations reveal that the Zn (101) crystal plane exhibits the strongest affinity and electronic interaction with leucine, which promoted the formation of a stable leucine‑zinc interface layer, effectively protecting the surface from the attack of H⁺ in the etchant. As a result, the modified Zn anode (denoted as Leu@Zn) enables stable cycling for up to 2900 h at 25 mA cm^-2 in symmetric cells and the full cells assembled with MnO₂ cathode delivers a prolonged cycle life of 50,000 cycles at 5 A g^-1.

The development of efficient photocatalysts for solar-driven hydrogen production is crucial for addressing energy and environmental challenges. Herein, a full-spectrum responsive "dual-engine" photocatalytic system based on a multifunctional cocatalyst featuring electrons extraction, photothermal heating effect and abundant active sites was successfully designed. In this system, hierarchical NiCo₂S₄ (NCS)/defective ZnCdS (ZCS-Vs) composite photocatalysts were synthesized through a simple physical mixing method with hierarchical NCS modified ZCS-Vs nanoparticles. Owing to the introduction of black hierarchical NCS, these composite photocatalysts show a wide light absorption range from 300 to 1200 nm due to the introduction of black hierarchical NCS. Under broad-spectrum illumination, the optimized photocatalyst delivered a maximum H₂ production rate of 22.19 mmol·g^-1·h^-1 and an apparent quantum yield of 6.29 % at 420 nm, corresponding to roughly a 42-fold improvement over pure ZCS-Vs. This outstanding H₂ evolution performance originates from three key factors. First, the metallic nature and high work function of NCS enable the formation of a Schottky junction with ZCS-Vs, which efficiently extracts photogenerated electrons from ZCS-Vs for the reduction of H⁺ ions. Second, under photoexcitation, NCS exhibits a strong localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) effect, leading to a rapid increase in local temperature on the catalyst surface. This localized heating further elevates the overall reaction solution temperature, thereby reducing the energy barrier for photocatalytic H₂ evolution. Third, 3D hierarchical structure of NCS not only inhibits nanoparticle aggregation and provides abundant active sites, but also enhances light harvesting through internal scattering, thereby maximizing both charge separation and photothermal efficiency. Consequently, this "dual-engine" photocatalytic system provides a feasible pathway for designing photothermal-assisted composite photocatalysts to enhance photocatalytic H₂ evolution efficiency.

Ruthenium-based materials are widely regarded as promising electrocatalysts for water splitting, owing to their platinum-like electronic characteristics and favorable binding energies with reaction intermediates. Nevertheless, the oxidation behavior of ruthenium at elevated potentials induces structural degradation, precipitating the dissolution of active species and thereby undermining stability during the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) in acidic media. Herein, we reported a novel RuO₂@Ru heterostructured catalyst with cobalt and copper co-doping (Co, Cu-RuO₂@Ru) for stable acidic water electrolysis. The heterostructured catalyst exhibited exceptional performance, attaining an ultralow overpotential of 182 mV at 10 mA cm^-2 for the OER and a low overpotential of 217 mV at 250 mA cm^-2 for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), surpassing the benchmark Pt/C catalyst. Electronic-structure analyses indicated that the RuO₂@Ru heterointerface promoted charge redistribution following Co and Cu co-doping, effectively reducing the oxidation state of ruthenium within RuO₂ and yielding an electron-deficient metallic Ru phase. Moreover, mechanistic investigations revealed that electron transfer induced by Co and Cu co-doping optimizes the adsorption and desorption kinetics of hydrogen and oxygenated intermediates, thereby accelerating the reaction kinetics of both HER and OER in acidic media, ultimately leading to exceptional overall water splitting performance.

Realizing Zn metal anodes with long lifespan performance is a prerequisite for the commercialization of Zn-ion batteries, which is limited by severe water erosion, side reactions and dendrite formation. Herein, a series of hydrophilic metalloporphyrin coatings were employed to stabilize the Zn anode by screening their central metal sites from Mn to Zn. Among them, central copper (Cu²⁺) site significantly blocks the competitive hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) by elevating the adsorption barrier for the hydrogen proton intermediate (H*), suppressing both Heyrovsky and Tafel steps. Consequently, the HER overpotential of CuTCPP@Zn is increased while parasitic side reactions are reduced. Furthermore, the enhanced zincophilicity of CuTCPP@Zn facilitates a high Zn²⁺ transfer number of 0.70, which promotes uniform nucleation and deposition. As a result, CuTCPP@Zn delivers a stable cycling life exceeding 1460 h at 1 mA cm^-2 and 453 h even at 5 mA cm^-2. This work provides insights for precisely altering intrinsic HER activity by regulating central metal sites of hydrophilic metalloporphyrin coatings from a thermodynamic perspective, thereby realizing the construction of stable Zn metal anodes.