In this paper, we use time-use surveys to examine trends in the allocation of time in five industrialized countries over the last thirty years. Adjusting for changing demographics, we find that leisure time across countries has converged over this period. Specifically, leisure time has declined five to eight hours in countries with high leisure levels thirty years ago and has increased around one hour in the other countries. For men the reduction in leisure was driven by an increase in nonmarket work, while women dramatically increased time allocated to market work and decreased nonmarket work time. Lastly, we show that like in the USA leisure inequality increased in all countries of our sample.
{"title":"The Distribution of Leisure Time Across Countries and Over Time","authors":"Monika Engler, S. Staubli","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.1233842","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1233842","url":null,"abstract":"In this paper, we use time-use surveys to examine trends in the allocation of time in five industrialized countries over the last thirty years. Adjusting for changing demographics, we find that leisure time across countries has converged over this period. Specifically, leisure time has declined five to eight hours in countries with high leisure levels thirty years ago and has increased around one hour in the other countries. For men the reduction in leisure was driven by an increase in nonmarket work, while women dramatically increased time allocated to market work and decreased nonmarket work time. Lastly, we show that like in the USA leisure inequality increased in all countries of our sample.","PeriodicalId":106212,"journal":{"name":"Labor: Demographics & Economics of the Family","volume":"5 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2008-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127495142","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
This paper exploits a unique longitudinal data set from Tanzania to examine the consequences of child labor on education, employment choices, and marital status over a 10-year horizon. Shocks to crop production and rainfall are used as instrumental variables for child labor. For boys, the findings show that a one-standard-deviation (5.7 hour) increase in child labor leads 10 years later to a loss of approximately one year of schooling and to a substantial increase in the likelihood of farming and of marrying at a younger age. Strikingly, there are no significant effects on education for girls, but there is a significant increase in the likelihood of marrying young. The findings also show that crop shocks lead to an increase in agricultural work for boys and instead lead to an increase in chore hours for girls. The results are consistent with education being a lower priority for girls and/or with chores causing less disruption for education than agricultural work. The increased chore hours could also account for the results on marriage for girls.
{"title":"The Consequences of Child Labor: Evidence from Longitudinal Data in Rural Tanzania","authors":"K. Beegle, Rajeev Dehejia, R. Gatti, S. Krutikova","doi":"10.1596/1813-9450-4677","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-4677","url":null,"abstract":"This paper exploits a unique longitudinal data set from Tanzania to examine the consequences of child labor on education, employment choices, and marital status over a 10-year horizon. Shocks to crop production and rainfall are used as instrumental variables for child labor. For boys, the findings show that a one-standard-deviation (5.7 hour) increase in child labor leads 10 years later to a loss of approximately one year of schooling and to a substantial increase in the likelihood of farming and of marrying at a younger age. Strikingly, there are no significant effects on education for girls, but there is a significant increase in the likelihood of marrying young. The findings also show that crop shocks lead to an increase in agricultural work for boys and instead lead to an increase in chore hours for girls. The results are consistent with education being a lower priority for girls and/or with chores causing less disruption for education than agricultural work. The increased chore hours could also account for the results on marriage for girls.","PeriodicalId":106212,"journal":{"name":"Labor: Demographics & Economics of the Family","volume":"53 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2008-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"122713381","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The rising rate of obesity has reached epidemic proportions and is now one of the most serious public health challenges facing the US. However, the underlying causes for this increase are unclear. This paper examines the effect of family income changes on body mass index (BMI) and obesity using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 cohort. It does so by using exogenous variation in family income in a sample of low-income women and men. This exogenous variation is obtained from the correlation of their family income with the generosity of state and federal Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) program benefits. Income is found to significantly raise the BMI and probability of being obese for women with EITC-eligible earnings, and have no appreciable effect for men with EITC-eligible earnings. The results imply that the increase in real family income from 1990 to 2002 explains between 10 and 21% of the increase in sample women's BMI and between 23 and 29% of their increased obesity prevalence.
{"title":"Expanding Wallets and Waistlines: The Impact of Family Income on the BMI of Women and Men Eligible for the Earned Income Tax Credit","authors":"Maximilian D. Schmeiser","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.1373924","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1373924","url":null,"abstract":"The rising rate of obesity has reached epidemic proportions and is now one of the most serious public health challenges facing the US. However, the underlying causes for this increase are unclear. This paper examines the effect of family income changes on body mass index (BMI) and obesity using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 cohort. It does so by using exogenous variation in family income in a sample of low-income women and men. This exogenous variation is obtained from the correlation of their family income with the generosity of state and federal Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) program benefits. Income is found to significantly raise the BMI and probability of being obese for women with EITC-eligible earnings, and have no appreciable effect for men with EITC-eligible earnings. The results imply that the increase in real family income from 1990 to 2002 explains between 10 and 21% of the increase in sample women's BMI and between 23 and 29% of their increased obesity prevalence.","PeriodicalId":106212,"journal":{"name":"Labor: Demographics & Economics of the Family","volume":"21 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2008-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126067527","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
In the United States, almost a third of new mothers who worked during pregnancy return to work within three months of childbirth. Current public policies in the U.S. do not support long periods of family leave after childbirth, although some states are starting to change this. As such, it is vital to understand how length of family leave during the first year after childbirth affects families' health and wellbeing. The purpose of this paper is to examine the association between family leave length, which includes leave taking by mothers and fathers, and behavioral and physical health outcomes among new mothers. Using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study - Birth Cohort, we examine measures of depression, overall health status, and substance use. We use a standard OLS as well as an instrumental variables approach with county-level employment conditions and state-level maternity leave policies as identifying instruments. The results suggest that longer maternity leave from work, both paid and un-paid, is associated with declines in depressive symptoms, a reduction in the likelihood of severe depression, and an improvement in overall maternal health. We also find that having a spouse that did not take any paternal leave after childbirth is associated with higher levels of maternal depressive symptoms. We do not find, however, that length of paternal leave is associated with overall maternal health, and we find only mixed evidence that leave length after childbirth affects maternal alcohol use and smoking.
{"title":"Family Leave after Childbirth and the Health of New Mothers","authors":"Pinka Chatterji, S. Markowitz","doi":"10.3386/W14156","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3386/W14156","url":null,"abstract":"In the United States, almost a third of new mothers who worked during pregnancy return to work within three months of childbirth. Current public policies in the U.S. do not support long periods of family leave after childbirth, although some states are starting to change this. As such, it is vital to understand how length of family leave during the first year after childbirth affects families' health and wellbeing. The purpose of this paper is to examine the association between family leave length, which includes leave taking by mothers and fathers, and behavioral and physical health outcomes among new mothers. Using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study - Birth Cohort, we examine measures of depression, overall health status, and substance use. We use a standard OLS as well as an instrumental variables approach with county-level employment conditions and state-level maternity leave policies as identifying instruments. The results suggest that longer maternity leave from work, both paid and un-paid, is associated with declines in depressive symptoms, a reduction in the likelihood of severe depression, and an improvement in overall maternal health. We also find that having a spouse that did not take any paternal leave after childbirth is associated with higher levels of maternal depressive symptoms. We do not find, however, that length of paternal leave is associated with overall maternal health, and we find only mixed evidence that leave length after childbirth affects maternal alcohol use and smoking.","PeriodicalId":106212,"journal":{"name":"Labor: Demographics & Economics of the Family","volume":"30 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2008-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"116749345","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
In order to carry out an analysis of transition in poverty, as well as the determining factors of entry to and exit out of poverty in the urban areas of Benin, this study uses the panel data of 836 households which were constituted based on the official surveys on households living conditions (Elam 96 and 99). The findings reveal that the proportion of households which are poor over a short-term is more important than that of households which are poor over a long-term and that, among households which are poor over a short-term, there are more cases of entry to poverty than cases of exit out of poverty. The determinants of cases of entry into and exit out of poverty have been analyzed based on the multinomial logit model. According to the findings, cases of exit out of poverty are determined by the status of the household head in the labour market, the activity sector, the demographic variables (number of dependents, gender), the ethnic group and the area of residence. The factors which allow entry into poverty are, on their part, relating to the geographical location, the status of household members in the labour market - except for the household head, the demographic factors (size of household, number of adults within the household) and the ethnic group. Education seems to favour long-term non poverty.
{"title":"Urban Poverty Dynamic in Benin: An Entry and Exit Analysis (Dynamique De La Pauvrete Urbaine Au Benin: Une Analyse En Termes D'Entrees Et De Sorties)","authors":"Mededji Damien","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.1148865","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1148865","url":null,"abstract":"In order to carry out an analysis of transition in poverty, as well as the determining factors of entry to and exit out of poverty in the urban areas of Benin, this study uses the panel data of 836 households which were constituted based on the official surveys on households living conditions (Elam 96 and 99). The findings reveal that the proportion of households which are poor over a short-term is more important than that of households which are poor over a long-term and that, among households which are poor over a short-term, there are more cases of entry to poverty than cases of exit out of poverty. The determinants of cases of entry into and exit out of poverty have been analyzed based on the multinomial logit model. According to the findings, cases of exit out of poverty are determined by the status of the household head in the labour market, the activity sector, the demographic variables (number of dependents, gender), the ethnic group and the area of residence. The factors which allow entry into poverty are, on their part, relating to the geographical location, the status of household members in the labour market - except for the household head, the demographic factors (size of household, number of adults within the household) and the ethnic group. Education seems to favour long-term non poverty.","PeriodicalId":106212,"journal":{"name":"Labor: Demographics & Economics of the Family","volume":"10 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2008-06-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130015570","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Pub Date : 2008-06-18DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0297.2008.02159.x
Sandra E. Black, P. Devereux, K. Salvanes
This article investigates whether increasing mandatory educational attainment through compulsory schooling legislation encourages women to delay childbearing. We use variation induced by changes in compulsory schooling laws in both the US and Norway to estimate the effect in two very different institutional environments. We find evidence that increased compulsory schooling does in fact reduce the incidence of teenage childbearing in both the US and Norway, and these estimates are quite robust to various specification checks. These results suggest that legislation aimed at improving educational outcomes may have spillover effects onto the fertility decisions of teenagers.
{"title":"Staying in the Classroom and Out of the Maternity Ward? The Effect of Compulsory Schooling Laws on Teenage Births","authors":"Sandra E. Black, P. Devereux, K. Salvanes","doi":"10.1111/j.1468-0297.2008.02159.x","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0297.2008.02159.x","url":null,"abstract":"This article investigates whether increasing mandatory educational attainment through compulsory schooling legislation encourages women to delay childbearing. We use variation induced by changes in compulsory schooling laws in both the US and Norway to estimate the effect in two very different institutional environments. We find evidence that increased compulsory schooling does in fact reduce the incidence of teenage childbearing in both the US and Norway, and these estimates are quite robust to various specification checks. These results suggest that legislation aimed at improving educational outcomes may have spillover effects onto the fertility decisions of teenagers.","PeriodicalId":106212,"journal":{"name":"Labor: Demographics & Economics of the Family","volume":"65 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2008-06-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"115510462","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
We examine several functional and numerical measures of wage discrimination in the spirit of the Lorenz curve. The First Order discrimination curve is based on the comparison of the wage CDF of two subpopulations. Three dierent Second Order discrimination curves are derived to re…ne the …rst one by taking into account inequality and/or e¢ ciency in the wage distribution across the two groups. We explore the relationship between these curves and some � Butler and McDonald (1987) developed about two decades ago the similar concept of interdistributional Lorenz curve and the main idea of our paper was already implicit in the work of some other scholars. However, our paper seems to constitute the …rst systematic study of these curves as a …rst step towards the derivation of partial dominance criteria in the analysis of discrimination data. y We thank Alain Trannoy for useful comments. The usual disclaimer applies. z Manufacture des Tabacs, Aile Jean-Jacques Laont 21, allee de Brienne, F-31000 Toulouse. E-mail: lebre-
我们以洛伦兹曲线的精神考察了工资歧视的几个函数和数值度量。一阶歧视曲线是基于两个亚群的工资CDF的比较。考虑到两组之间工资分配的不平等和/或效率，导出了三个不同的二阶歧视曲线，以重新定义第一阶歧视曲线。巴特勒和麦克唐纳(1987)在大约20年前提出了类似的分布间洛伦兹曲线的概念，我们论文的主要思想已经隐含在其他一些学者的工作中。然而，我们的论文似乎构成了对这些曲线的第一次系统研究，作为推导判别数据分析中的部分优势标准的第一步。我们感谢阿兰·特兰诺伊提出的有益意见。通常的免责声明适用。z烟草制造商，Aile Jean-Jacques Laont 21, allee de Brienne, F-31000图卢兹。电子邮件:是个-
{"title":"Wage Discrimination Measurement: In Defense of a Simple but Informative Statistical Tool","authors":"M. Le Breton, A. Michelangeli, Eugenio Peluso","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.1337986","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1337986","url":null,"abstract":"We examine several functional and numerical measures of wage discrimination in the spirit of the Lorenz curve. The First Order discrimination curve is based on the comparison of the wage CDF of two subpopulations. Three dierent Second Order discrimination curves are derived to re…ne the …rst one by taking into account inequality and/or e¢ ciency in the wage distribution across the two groups. We explore the relationship between these curves and some � Butler and McDonald (1987) developed about two decades ago the similar concept of interdistributional Lorenz curve and the main idea of our paper was already implicit in the work of some other scholars. However, our paper seems to constitute the …rst systematic study of these curves as a …rst step towards the derivation of partial dominance criteria in the analysis of discrimination data. y We thank Alain Trannoy for useful comments. The usual disclaimer applies. z Manufacture des Tabacs, Aile Jean-Jacques Laont 21, allee de Brienne, F-31000 Toulouse. E-mail: lebre-","PeriodicalId":106212,"journal":{"name":"Labor: Demographics & Economics of the Family","volume":"332 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2008-06-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"124684489","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Alternating residence of children is regulated by the Act of 4th March 2002 and is based either on the basis of parental agreement or, if it is impossible, on a judicial decision. Of course, joint physical parental authority implies appropriate material circumstances, but it also refers to the mutual respect of the parents for each other and to their capacity to communicate with each other, thus ensuring that the child is educated and raised in an harmonious environment. However, this type of arrangement for the child can be altered at any time as and when new circumstances arise, for example when of one of the child’s parents moves. The child’s best interests must remain the paramount consideration in establishing, as well as when terminating an alternating residence arrangement.
{"title":"Alternating Residence and Relocation A View from France","authors":"Frédérique Granet","doi":"10.18352/ULR.65","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.18352/ULR.65","url":null,"abstract":"Alternating residence of children is regulated by the Act of 4th March 2002 and is based either on the basis of parental agreement or, if it is impossible, on a judicial decision. Of course, joint physical parental authority implies appropriate material circumstances, but it also refers to the mutual respect of the parents for each other and to their capacity to communicate with each other, thus ensuring that the child is educated and raised in an harmonious environment. However, this type of arrangement for the child can be altered at any time as and when new circumstances arise, for example when of one of the child’s parents moves. The child’s best interests must remain the paramount consideration in establishing, as well as when terminating an alternating residence arrangement.","PeriodicalId":106212,"journal":{"name":"Labor: Demographics & Economics of the Family","volume":"69 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2008-06-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"114513162","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Gender-specific determinants of remittances are the subject of this study based on German SOEP data (2001-2006). In 2007, about 7.3 million foreigners were living in Germany. While the total number of foreigners has decreased over the last decade, female migration to Germany has increased. A feminization of migration is observable all over the world, and is changing gender roles in the households of origin as well. Today, women constitute 48.6% of migratory flows to Germany, although the proportion varies significantly by country of origin. A feminization of migration is observable all over the world, and is changing gender roles in the households of origin as well. To date, research has failed to address the gender-specific determinants of remittances from Germany. Here we attempt to fill this gap, focusing on gender roles and network effects. We distinguish between three different groups of migrants: foreigners, Germans with migration background, and all individuals with personal migration experience. Our main findings show, above all, that gender matters. However, the gender differences identified disappear after controlling for transnational (family) networks. Taking interaction terms into account reveals gender-specific network effects. In addition, different groups of migrants show remarkable differences in international networking. We find that female foreigners, but not female migrants with German citizenship, remit less than males if their children live abroad as well. Female migrants with German citizenship send more money home if their siblings remain in the home country. We find the reverse in the case of female migrants with foreign citizenship. Our findings show that female migrants tend to support their children first and foremost, while male migrants tend to support a wider network of more distant family members and friends. This finding is in sharp contrast to previous studies on remittances. It makes clear that there is little evidence supporting the assumption that remittances simply follow income-difference based altruism or that women are more altruistic than men. Furthermore, there seems to be evidence that the gender-specific differences detected in remittance behavior might be due to gender-specific migration patterns and the relative role of the migrant within the transnational network.
{"title":"Gender, Migration, Remittances: Evidence from Germany","authors":"E. Holst, Andreas Schäfer, M. Schrooten","doi":"10.2139/ssrn.1151186","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1151186","url":null,"abstract":"Gender-specific determinants of remittances are the subject of this study based on German SOEP data (2001-2006). In 2007, about 7.3 million foreigners were living in Germany. While the total number of foreigners has decreased over the last decade, female migration to Germany has increased. A feminization of migration is observable all over the world, and is changing gender roles in the households of origin as well. Today, women constitute 48.6% of migratory flows to Germany, although the proportion varies significantly by country of origin. A feminization of migration is observable all over the world, and is changing gender roles in the households of origin as well. To date, research has failed to address the gender-specific determinants of remittances from Germany. Here we attempt to fill this gap, focusing on gender roles and network effects. We distinguish between three different groups of migrants: foreigners, Germans with migration background, and all individuals with personal migration experience. Our main findings show, above all, that gender matters. However, the gender differences identified disappear after controlling for transnational (family) networks. Taking interaction terms into account reveals gender-specific network effects. In addition, different groups of migrants show remarkable differences in international networking. We find that female foreigners, but not female migrants with German citizenship, remit less than males if their children live abroad as well. Female migrants with German citizenship send more money home if their siblings remain in the home country. We find the reverse in the case of female migrants with foreign citizenship. Our findings show that female migrants tend to support their children first and foremost, while male migrants tend to support a wider network of more distant family members and friends. This finding is in sharp contrast to previous studies on remittances. It makes clear that there is little evidence supporting the assumption that remittances simply follow income-difference based altruism or that women are more altruistic than men. Furthermore, there seems to be evidence that the gender-specific differences detected in remittance behavior might be due to gender-specific migration patterns and the relative role of the migrant within the transnational network.","PeriodicalId":106212,"journal":{"name":"Labor: Demographics & Economics of the Family","volume":"15 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2008-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130520931","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
The deteriorating American economic situation in 2007 was first felt by individual consumers and families throughout the country experiencing personal financial crisis and an increase in home foreclosures. This personal level economic crisis was followed by failures and retractions in the financial services sector, which in turn was followed by retractions throughout the wider economy and in the stock market. Finally, the impact of these wider economic retractions caused financial aftershocks for individual consumers and families in the form of job loss, reduced income and reduced net worth driven by the plummeting values of their remaining real estate and retirement holdings. From this cycle one can draw a hypothesis that reducing the incidence of personal financial crisis should have a positive and stabilizing impact on the wider economy. One commonly proposed method for reducing the incidence of personal financial crisis is to modify consumer behavior through financial literacy education. The development of data identifying those Americans in personal financial crisis is necessary to create effective financial literacy education programs. In 2006 the Institute for Financial Literacy established a comprehensive, neutral research program designed to collect demographic information from individuals contemplating and eventually filing for bankruptcy protection, a population that is by definition in personal financial crisis. Utilizing the Institute's capacity for large scale data collection, information was collected for the period January 1, 2007 through December 31, 2007 in the following categories: gender, age, ethnicity, educational attainment, personal income level, employment status, marital status and cause(s) of financial distress. This data was then analyzed by the Institute's Center for Consumer Financial Research (CCFR) and indicates that the average American who is in financial distress and seeking bankruptcy related credit counseling and financial education is: Caucasian, married, employed, between the ages of 35-44 years old, has at least a high school education or some college, and makes no more than $30,000 per year. In light of its findings, this paper challenges the academic community to craft effective solutions for America's ever growing personal debt problem.
2007年美国经济形势的恶化首先体现在全国各地的个人消费者和家庭身上，他们经历了个人财务危机，房屋丧失抵押品赎回权的情况有所增加。在这场个人层面的经济危机之后，金融服务业出现了失败和收缩，而这反过来又导致了整个经济和股市的收缩。最后，这些更广泛的经济收缩的影响给个人消费者和家庭带来了金融余震，其形式是失业、收入减少和净资产减少，这些都是由他们剩余的房地产和退休资产价值暴跌造成的。从这个循环中，我们可以得出一个假设，即减少个人财务危机的发生率应该对更广泛的经济产生积极和稳定的影响。减少个人财务危机发生的一种常用方法是通过金融知识教育来改变消费者的行为。开发识别处于个人财务危机中的美国人的数据对于创建有效的金融素养教育计划是必要的。2006年，金融知识研究所(Institute for Financial Literacy)建立了一个全面、中立的研究项目，旨在收集正在考虑并最终申请破产保护的个人的人口统计信息，根据定义，这些人处于个人金融危机中。利用研究所的大规模数据收集能力，收集了2007年1月1日至2007年12月31日期间的信息，分类如下:性别、年龄、种族、教育程度、个人收入水平、就业状况、婚姻状况和经济困难的原因。该研究所的消费者金融研究中心(CCFR)随后对这些数据进行了分析，结果表明，陷入财务困境并寻求破产相关信用咨询和金融教育的普通美国人是:高加索人，已婚，有工作，年龄在35-44岁之间，至少有高中或大学学历，年收入不超过3万美元。鉴于其研究结果，本文向学术界提出了挑战，要求他们为美国日益严重的个人债务问题制定有效的解决方案。
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