Self-regulation denotes the processes by which people initiate, maintain, and control their own thoughts, behaviors, or emotions to produce a desired outcome or avoid an undesired outcome. Self-regulation brings the influence of distal factors such as biology, temperament, and socialization history onto cognition, motivation, and behavior. Dysfunction in self-regulation represents a contributory causal factor for psychopathology. Accordingly, we previously proposed a risk phenotype model for depression drawing from regulatory focus theory and traditional task-based fMRI studies. In this article, we revise and expand our risk phenotype model using insights from new methodologies allowing quantification of individual differences in task-free macroscale brain organization. We offer a set of hypotheses as examples of how examination of intrinsic macroscale brain organization can extend and enrich investigations of self-regulation and depression. In doing so, we hope to promote a useful heuristic for model development and for identifying transdiagnostic risk phenotypes in psychopathology.
A cornerstone of human information processing is how we make decisions about incoming sensory percepts. Much of psychological science has focused on understanding how these judgements operate in skilled adult observers. While not typically the focus of this research, there is considerable variability in how adults make these judgements. Here, we review complementary computational modelling, electrophysiological data, eye-tracking and longitudinal approaches to the study of perceptual decisions across neurotypical development and in neurodivergent individuals. These data highlight multiple parameters and temporal dynamics feeding into how we become skilled adult perceptual decision makers, and which may help explain why we vary so much in how we make perceptual decisions.
Social scientists have begun to extensively study how living in contexts with high income inequality affects psychological outcomes. Herein we overview a conceptual framework that integrates, organizes, and extends these complex (and sometimes contradictory) findings. First, we describe studies showing that income inequality breeds an ethos of competitiveness. Second, we argue that the inequality-competitiveness relation explains why income inequality (a) promotes status-focused behaviors aimed at lifting oneself up and/or bringing others down, (b) harms social relations when they pose an obstacle to one's economic advancement, (c) exerts opposing effects on well-being via avoidance motivation (focusing on the risk of economic failure) and approach motivation (focusing on the prospect of economic success), and (d) represents a threat to those who perceive they do not have sufficient individual/contextual resources to cope with the demands of competition but a challenge to those with sufficient resources. We also discuss limitations and future directions for research.
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